An amperometric glucose-oxidase/poly(o-phenylenediamine) biosensor for monitoring brain extracellular glucose: in vivo characterisation in the striatum of freely-moving rats

Amperometric glucose biosensors based on the immobilization of glucose oxidase (GOx) on Pt electrodes with electropolymerized o-phenylenediamine (PPD) were implanted in the right striatum of freely-moving rats. Carbon paste electrodes for the simultaneous monitoring of ascorbic acid (AA) and/or tissue O2 were implanted in the left striatum. A detailed in vivo characterization of the Pt/PPD/GOx signal was carried out using various pharmacological manipulations. Confirmation that the biosensor responded to changing glucose levels in brain extracellular fluid (ECF) was obtained by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of insulin that caused a decrease in the Pt/PPD/GOx current, and local administration of glucose (1 mM) via an adjacent microdialysis probe that resulted in an increase in the biosensor current. An insulin induced increase in tissue O2 in the brain was also observed. Interference studies involved administering AA and subanaesthetic doses of ketamine i.p. Both resulted in increased extracellular AA levels with ketamine also causing an increase in O2. No significant change in the Pt/PPD/GOx current was observed in either case indicating that changes in O2 and AA, the principal endogenous interferents, have minimal effect on the response of these first generation biosensors. Stability tests over a successive 5-day period revealed no significant change in sensitivity. These in vivo results suggest reliable glucose monitoring in brain ECF.

[1]  A. Turner,et al.  Ferrocene-mediated enzyme electrode for amperometric determination of glucose. , 1984, Analytical chemistry.

[2]  M. Fillenz,et al.  The relation between local cerebral blood flow and extracellular glucose concentration in rat striatum , 1998, Experimental physiology.

[3]  Real time monitoring of biphasic glutamate release using dialysis electrode in rat acute brain ischemia , 1996, Neuroreport.

[4]  J. Dimattio,et al.  In Vivo Comparative Study of Ascorbic Acid and Glucose Transport into Cerebrospinal Fluid of the Rat , 1988 .

[5]  M. Fillenz,et al.  Rapid changes in striatal ascorbate in response to tail-pinch monitored by constant potential voltammetry , 1989, Neuroscience.

[6]  G. S. Wilson,et al.  Biosensors : fundamentals and applications , 1987 .

[7]  P. H. Griffiths,et al.  Guidelines on the recognition of pain, distress and discomfort in experimental animals and an hypothesis for assessment , 1985, Veterinary Record.

[8]  M. Fillenz,et al.  Characterization of carbon paste electrodes in vitro for simultaneous amperometric measurement of changes in oxygen and ascorbic acid concentrations in vivo. , 1996, The Analyst.

[9]  Alexander M. Yacynych,et al.  Electropolymerized 1,2-diaminobenzene as a means to prevent interferences and fouling and to stabilize immobilized enzyme in electrochemical biosensors , 1990 .

[10]  Daniel Thomas,et al.  Electrochemical study of d-glucose oxidase autoinactivation , 1982 .

[11]  M. Fillenz,et al.  Stimulated release of lactate in freely moving rats is dependent on the uptake of glutamate. , 1997, The Journal of physiology.

[12]  Werner G. Kuhr,et al.  Enzyme‐modified microelectrodes for in vivo neurochemical measurements , 1995 .

[13]  R. Steger,et al.  Plasma microdialysis. A technique for continuous plasma sampling in freely moving rats. , 1993, Journal of pharmacological and toxicological methods.

[14]  M. Fillenz,et al.  In vivo determination of extracellular brain ascorbate , 1996, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[15]  A. Michael,et al.  An enzyme-modified microelectrode that detects choline injected locally into brain tissue , 1993 .

[16]  M. Fillenz,et al.  Evidence for uncoupling of oxygen and glucose utilization during neuronal activation in rat striatum. , 1997, The Journal of physiology.

[17]  R. O'Neill.  Sensor-tissue interactions in neurochemical analysis with carbon paste electrodes in vivo. , 1993, The Analyst.

[18]  Martyn G. Boutelle,et al.  The dialysis electrode—a new method for in vivo monitoring , 1992 .

[19]  R D O'Neill,et al.  Microvoltammetric techniques and sensors for monitoring neurochemical dynamics in vivo. A review. , 1994, The Analyst.

[20]  S. Bhattacharya,et al.  Effect of intracerebroventricularly administered insulin on brain monoamines and acetylcholine in euglycaemic and alloxan-induced hyperglycaemic rats. , 1991, Indian journal of experimental biology.

[21]  I. Silver,et al.  Extracellular glucose concentration in mammalian brain: continuous monitoring of changes during increased neuronal activity and upon limitation in oxygen supply in normo-, hypo-, and hyperglycemic animals , 1994, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[22]  G. S. Wilson,et al.  Direct measurement of glutamate release in the brain using a dual enzyme-based electrochemical sensor , 1994, Brain Research.

[23]  D. Bélanger,et al.  Optimization of a polypyrrole glucose oxidase biosensor. , 1990, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[24]  Martyn G Boutelle,et al.  Measurement of brain tissue oxygen at a carbon paste electrode can serve as an index of increases in regional cerebral blood flow , 1997, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[25]  N. Jaffrezic‐Renault,et al.  In vivo brain glucose measurements: differential normal pulse voltammetry with enzyme-modified carbon fiber microelectrodes. , 1996, Analytical chemistry.

[26]  M. Fillenz,et al.  Linear sweep voltammetry with carbon paste electrodes in the rat striatum , 1982, Neuroscience.

[27]  G. Paxinos,et al.  The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates , 1983 .

[28]  A. Michael,et al.  Quantitation of choline in the extracellular fluid of brain tissue with amperometric microsensors. , 1994, Analytical chemistry.

[29]  Thomas J. Sick,et al.  Depth profile of local oxygen tension and blood flow in rat cerebral cortex, white matter and hippocampus , 1988, Brain Research.

[30]  J. Lowry,et al.  Partial characterization in vitro of glucose oxidase‐modified poly(phenylenediamine)‐coated electrodes for neurochemical analysis in vivo , 1994 .

[31]  S. Wolfensohn,et al.  Handbook of Laboratory Animal Management and Welfare , 1994 .

[32]  Mu Shaolin,et al.  BIOELECTROCHEMICAL RESPONSES OF THE POLYANILINE GLUCOSE OXIDASE ELECTRODE , 1991 .

[33]  P. Bartlett,et al.  A Microelectrochemical Enzyme Transistor Responsive to Glucose , 1994 .

[34]  S. Dong.  Surface Modification of Electrodes for Amperometric Biosensors in Analytical Chemistry , 1994 .

[35]  M. Fillenz,et al.  The mechanisms controlling physiologically stimulated changes in rat brain glucose and lactate: a microdialysis study. , 1996, The Journal of physiology.

[36]  R. Wightman,et al.  Simultaneous electrochemical measurements of oxygen and dopamine in vivo. , 1991, Analytical chemistry.

[37]  L. C. Clark,et al.  ELECTRODE SYSTEMS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING IN CARDIOVASCULAR SURGERY , 1962 .

[38]  G. Gerhardt,et al.  o-Phenylenediamine-modified carbon fiber electrodes for the detection of nitric oxide. , 1996, Analytical chemistry.

[39]  Zimmerman Jb,et al.  Simultaneous electrochemical measurements of oxygen and dopamine in vivo. , 1991 .

[40]  A. Turner,et al.  Glucose oxidase: an ideal enzyme , 1992 .

[41]  Charles Nicholson,et al.  Diffusion and Ion Shifts in the Brain Extracellular Microenvironment and Their Relevance for Voltammetric Measurements , 1995 .

[42]  J. Lowry,et al.  Characterization of Glucose Oxidase-Modified Poly(phenylenediamine)-Coated Electrodes in vitro and in vivo: Homogeneous Interference by Ascorbic Acid in Hydrogen Peroxide Detection , 1994 .

[43]  G. S. Wilson,et al.  In vitro and in vivo evaluation of oxygen effects on a glucose oxidase based implantable glucose sensor , 1993 .

[44]  C. Malitesta,et al.  Glucose fast-response amperometric sensor based on glucose oxidase immobilized in an electropolymerized poly(o-phenylenediamine) film. , 1990, Analytical chemistry.

[45]  D R Medoff,et al.  Ketamine activates psychosis and alters limbic blood flow in schizophrenia , 1995, Neuroreport.

[46]  J. Jantzen.  [Cerebral neuroprotection and ketamine]. , 1994, Der Anaesthesist.

[47]  Robert D. O'Neill,et al.  Efficient glucose detection in anaerobic solutions using an enzyme-modified electrode designed to detect H2O2: implications for biomedical applications , 1994 .

[48]  M. Fillenz,et al.  An amperometric enzyme electrode for monitoring brain glucose in the freely moving rat , 1986, Neuroscience Letters.