Mental health consequences of disasters.

We present in this review the current state of disaster mental health research. In particular, we provide an overview of research on the presentation, burden, correlates, and treatment of mental disorders following disasters. We also describe challenges to studying the mental health consequences of disasters and discuss the limitations in current methodologies. Finally, we offer directions for future disaster mental health research.

[1]  Janet B W Williams,et al.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 2013 .

[2]  Olga V. Demler,et al.  Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. , 2005, Archives of general psychiatry.

[3]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Somatic symptoms in women 11 years after the Chornobyl accident: prevalence and risk factors. , 2002, Environmental health perspectives.

[4]  C. Fullerton,et al.  Disaster Psychiatry: Principles and Practice , 2004, Psychiatric Quarterly.

[5]  A. Shalev Further Lessons from 9/11: Does Stress Equal Trauma? , 2004, Psychiatry.

[6]  Fran H Norris,et al.  Looking for resilience: understanding the longitudinal trajectories of responses to stress. , 2009, Social science & medicine.

[7]  S. Guay,et al.  Exploring the links between posttraumatic stress disorder and social support: processes and potential research avenues. , 2006, Journal of traumatic stress.

[8]  Suzanne R. Best,et al.  Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. , 2008, Psychological bulletin.

[9]  B. Nolan,et al.  Sleep events among veterans with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. , 1995, The American journal of psychiatry.

[10]  S. Galea,et al.  How does the social environment 'get into the mind'? Epigenetics at the intersection of social and psychiatric epidemiology. , 2012, Social science & medicine.

[11]  G. Bonanno,et al.  Resilience in the Face of Potential Trauma , 2005 .

[12]  S Galea,et al.  Post-traumatic stress disorder following disasters: a systematic review , 2007, Psychological Medicine.

[13]  S. Galea,et al.  Mental health and disasters , 2009 .

[14]  P. Cuijpers,et al.  Psychiatric history and subthreshold symptoms as predictors of the occurrence of depressive or anxiety disorder within 2 years. , 2011, The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science.

[15]  A. McFarlane,et al.  Mental Health Services Required after Disasters: Learning from the Lasting Effects of Disasters , 2012, Depression research and treatment.

[16]  Stuart Turner,et al.  Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder , 2007, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[17]  A. Dirkzwager,et al.  Physical Health Problems after Disasters , 2009 .

[18]  Robert J. Nicholls,et al.  Resilience to natural hazards: How useful is this concept? , 2003 .

[19]  G. Bonanno Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? , 2008, The American psychologist.

[20]  F. Norris,et al.  60,000 Disaster Victims Speak: Part II. Summary and Implications of the Disaster Mental Health Research , 2002, Psychiatry.

[21]  F. Norris,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: The Experience of Disaster: Trauma, Loss, Adversities, and Community Effects , 2009 .

[22]  R. Kessler,et al.  Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. , 1995, Archives of general psychiatry.

[23]  Symptomatology and management of acute grief , 1944 .

[24]  K. Brady,et al.  Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. , 2000, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[25]  S. Galea,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Methodological Challenges in Studying the Mental Health Consequences of Disasters , 2009 .

[26]  A. Masten Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development. , 2001, The American psychologist.

[27]  D. Dick Gene-environment interaction in psychological traits and disorders. , 2011, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[28]  R. Kessler,et al.  Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. , 1998, Archives of general psychiatry.

[29]  D. Antonacci,et al.  Clozapine treatment in a population of adults with mental retardation. , 2000, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[30]  Elizabeth M. Smith,et al.  Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. , 1999, JAMA.

[31]  Matthew D. Jeffreys Clinician's Guide to Medications for PTSD , 2014 .

[32]  R. McNally,et al.  Does Early Psychological Intervention Promote Recovery From Posttraumatic Stress? , 2003, Psychological science in the public interest : a journal of the American Psychological Society.

[33]  J. Elhai,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Utilization of Mental Health Services after Disasters , 2009 .

[34]  Ronald C Kessler,et al.  Mental illness and suicidality after Hurricane Katrina. , 2006, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[35]  Lynda A. King,et al.  Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after Hurricane Katrina. , 2007, Archives of general psychiatry.

[36]  F. Burkle,et al.  Acute-phase mental health consequences of disasters: implications for triage and emergency medical services. , 1996, Annals of emergency medicine.

[37]  J T Mitchell,et al.  When disaster strikes...the critical incident stress debriefing process. , 1983, JEMS : a journal of emergency medical services.

[38]  J S TYHURST,et al.  Individual reactions to community disaster. The natural history of psychiatric phenomena. , 1951, The American journal of psychiatry.

[39]  A. McFarlane,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Anxiety Disorders and PTSD , 2009 .

[40]  K. Hoagwood,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Mental Health Care for Children in the Wake of Disasters , 2009 .

[41]  G. Bonanno,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Resilience after Disaster , 2009 .

[42]  Jasmin K. Riad,et al.  Stability and change in stress, resources, and psychological distress following natural disaster: Findings from hurricane Andrew. , 1999, Anxiety, stress, and coping.

[43]  R. Kessler,et al.  Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. , 1994, Archives of general psychiatry.

[44]  B. Raphael,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Disaster Mental Health Research: Past, Present, and Future , 2009 .

[45]  N. Kar Psychological impact of disasters on children: review of assessment and interventions , 2009, World journal of pediatrics : WJP.

[46]  A. Adler NEUROPSYCHIATRIC COMPLICATIONS IN VICTIMS OF BOSTON'S COCOANUT GROVE DISASTER , 1943 .

[47]  Y. Ben-Shlomo,et al.  Life course epidemiology , 2003, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[48]  Sandro Galea,et al.  An Overview of 9/11 Experiences and Respiratory and Mental Health Conditions among World Trade Center Health Registry Enrollees , 2008, Journal of Urban Health.

[49]  S. Galea,et al.  The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. , 2005, Epidemiologic reviews.

[50]  R. Kimerling,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Women and Disasters , 2009 .

[51]  S. Galea,et al.  Differences in the determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a mass traumatic event , 2011, Depression and anxiety.

[52]  F. Norris,et al.  60,000 Disaster Victims Speak: Part I. An Empirical Review of the Empirical Literature, 1981—2001 , 2002, Psychiatry.

[53]  S. Galea,et al.  The course of posttraumatic stress symptoms and functional impairment following a disaster: what is the lasting influence of acute versus ongoing traumatic events and stressors? , 2013, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[54]  S. Galea,et al.  Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[55]  Olga V. Demler,et al.  Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. , 2005, Archives of general psychiatry.

[56]  R. Kessler,et al.  Twelve-month use of mental health services in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. , 2005, Archives of general psychiatry.

[57]  S. Galea,et al.  Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan, New York, residents after the September 11th terrorist attacks. , 2002, American journal of epidemiology.

[58]  S. Southwick,et al.  Resilience in the Face of Disaster: Prevalence and Longitudinal Course of Mental Disorders following Hurricane Ike , 2012, PloS one.

[59]  S. Galea,et al.  Alcohol Drinking Problems Among New York City Residents after the September 11 Terrorist Attacks , 2006, Substance use & misuse.

[60]  J. Unger,et al.  Homeless Youths and Young Adults in Los Angeles: Prevalence of Mental Health Problems and the Relationship Between Mental Health and Substance Abuse Disorders , 1997, American journal of community psychology.

[61]  C. Fullerton,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: What is Psychopathology after Disasters? Considerations about the Nature of the Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Disasters , 2009 .

[62]  M. Webber,et al.  Evaluating Risk Factors and Possible Mediation Effects in Posttraumatic Depression and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Comorbidity , 2011, Public health reports.

[63]  Lauren M. Conoscenti,et al.  Mental Health and Disasters: Depression and Prolonged Grief in the Wake of Disasters , 2009 .

[64]  Sandro Galea,et al.  Utilization of mental health services following the September 11th terrorist attacks in Manhattan, New York City. , 2002, International journal of emergency mental health.

[65]  C. Brewin,et al.  Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. , 2000, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[66]  S. Galea,et al.  Participation rates in epidemiologic studies. , 2007, Annals of epidemiology.