Psychomotor function and psychoactive drugs.

A cursory review of the literature reveals that the techniques used to assess psychomotor functions are diverse, often complex, frequently insensitive to drug induced changes and sometimes inconvenient to enact or replicate. Adams (1974) used proof reading ability; Croucher & Hindmarch (1974), the duration of the spiral after effect ; Betts, Clayton & Mackay (1972), low speed car handling tasks; Malpas, Rowan, Joyce & Scott (1970), card sorting ability; Fargus & Hindmarch (1974), a cardriving simulator; Ashton, Hall, Savage, Telford & Thompson (1972), a pursuit rotor; File & Bond (1979), symbol copying; Van Houten & Zenhausern (1967), the absolute auditory threshold; Davis, Hollister, Overall, Johnson & Train (1976), short and long term memory; Ghoneim & Mewaldt (1977), verbal learning; Gendreau, Sherlock, Parsons, McLean, Scott & Suboske (1972), discrimination conditioning of the eyelid response; Gupta (1974), the kinaesthetic figural after effect.

[1]  J. Gray,et al.  Strength of the nervous system, introversion-extraversion, conditionability and arousal. , 1967, Behaviour research and therapy.

[2]  C. Spielberger,et al.  Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory , 1970 .

[3]  BY W. P. Colquhoun.  Effects of Hyoscine and Meclozine on Vigilance and Short-term Memory , 1962 .

[4]  I Hindmarch,et al.  The effects of clobazam and lorazepam on aspects of psychomotor performance and car handling ability. , 1980, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[5]  W H Teichner,et al.  Laws of visual choice reaction time. , 1974, Psychological review.

[6]  I. Hindmarch.  Laboratory investigation of effect of acute doses of nomifensine on a simulated aspect of night-time car driving performance. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[7]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  Clobazam, a 1,5-benzodiazepine, and car-driving ability. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[8]  S. Goldstone,et al.  Effect of quinal barbitone, dextro-amphetamine, and placebo on apparent time. , 1958, British journal of psychology.

[9]  K. Korttila,et al.  Recovery, Psychomotor Skills, and Simulated Driving after Brief Inhalational Anesthesia with Halothane or Enflurane Combined with Nitrous Oxide and Oxygen , 1977, Anesthesiology.

[10]  J. Mørland,et al.  Combined effects of diazepam and ethanol on mental and psychomotor functions. , 2009, Acta pharmacologica et toxicologica.

[11]  V. Březinová,et al.  Effect of caffeine on sleep: EEG study in late middle age people. , 1974, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[12]  T. Silverstone,et al.  A clinical and psychometric evaluation of flurazepam. , 1975, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[13]  J. R. Wittenborn,et al.  Effects of benzodiazepines on psychomotor performance. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[14]  F N Dyer,et al.  The Stroop phenomenon and its use in the stlldy of perceptual, cognitive, and response processes , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[15]  B. Biehl.  Studies of clobazam and car-driving. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[16]  C. Frith.  The effects of nicotine on tapping: II. , 1967, Life sciences.

[17]  G. Claridge.  Drugs and human behaviour , 1970 .

[18]  A N Nicholson,et al.  Performance studies with diazepam and its hydroxylated metabolites. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[19]  M. Lawton,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF DIAZEPAM (VALIUM®) AND ALCOHOL ON PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE , 1963 .

[20]  R. Wilkinson,et al.  The effects of low doses of amylobarbitone sodium and diazepam on human performance. , 1976, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[21]  L. Molander,et al.  Acute effects of oxazepam, diazepam and methylperone, alone and in combination with alcohol on sedation, coordination and mood. , 2009, Acta pharmacologica et toxicologica.

[22]  C. Metzler,et al.  Efficacy and Residual Effect Evaluation of a New Hypnotic, Triazolam , 1974, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[23]  C. Kornetsky.  Effects of meprobamate, phenobarbital and dextroamphetamine on reaction time and learning in man. , 1958, The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics.

[24]  C. Joyce,et al.  Persistent Behaviour and Electroencephalographic Changes after Single Doses of Nitrazepam and Amylobarbitone Sodium , 1970, British medical journal.

[25]  H. L. Williams,et al.  Impaired performance with acute sleep loss. , 1959 .

[26]  R G Borland,et al.  Human performance after a barbiturate (heptabarbitone). , 1974, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[27]  E. Jacobsen,et al.  The Rôle of the Reticulo‐endothelial System in the Ripening of Reticulocytes. , 1943 .

[28]  J. Frisby,et al.  The amnesic effect of diazepam (Valium). , 1970, British journal of anaesthesia.

[29]  The effects of stimulant and depressant drugs on verbal conditioning. , 1973, British journal of psychology.

[30]  H. Eysenck,et al.  Individual Differences in Tapping Performance as a Function of Time on the Task , 1971, Perceptual and motor skills.

[31]  M. Mattila,et al.  Amitriptyline- and mianserin-induced changes in acquisition of paired-association learning-task. , 1978, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[32]  M. Lewis,et al.  Drugs and human memory: effects of low doses of nitrazepam and hyoscine on retention. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[33]  G. M. Mackay,et al.  Effects of Four Commonly-used Tranquillizers on Low-speed Driving Performance Tests , 1972, British medical journal.

[34]  G. Holmberg,et al.  Degree of sedation obtained with various doses of diazepam and nitrazepam. , 2009, Acta pharmacologica et toxicologica.

[35]  P H Schiller,et al.  Developmental study of color-word interference. , 1966, Journal of experimental psychology.

[36]  C. Bakker,et al.  Personality, catecholamine metabolites, and psychophysiological response to diazepam. , 1966, Journal of psychiatric research.

[37]  D. Donaldson,et al.  A review of the effects of diazepam on cognitive and psychomotor performance. , 1975, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[38]  P. Crome,et al.  A Comparison of the Effects of Single Doses of Mianserin and Amitriptyline on Psychomotor Tests in Normal Volunteers , 1978, The Journal of international medical research.

[39]  J Morland,et al.  Mental and psychomotor effects of diazepam and ethanol. , 2009, Acta pharmacologica et toxicologica.

[40]  S. Goldstone,et al.  Flicker fusion measurements and anxiety level. , 1955, Journal of experimental psychology.

[41]  K. Korttila,et al.  Prolonged recovery after diazepam sedation: the influence of food, charcoal ingestion and injection rate on the effects of intravenous diazepam. , 1977, British journal of anaesthesia.

[42]  R. Tarter,et al.  Effects of Task Complexity and Practice on Performance during Acute Alcohol Intoxication , 1971, Perceptual and motor skills.

[43]  K. Newell,et al.  Performance criteria for stabilometer learning. , 1972, Journal of motor behavior.

[44]  M. Tansella,et al.  The effects of chlordesmethyldiazepam on behavioral performance and subjective judgment in normal subjects. , 1976, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[45]  Reitan Rm.  The comparative effects of placebo, ultran, and meprobamate on psychologic test performances. , 1957 .

[46]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  Clobazam. A 1.5 benzodiazepine derivative: effects upon human psychomotor performance under different levels of task reinforcement. , 1978, Archives internationales de pharmacodynamie et de therapie.

[47]  N. Legg,et al.  Effects of Hypnotics on Anxious Patients , 1974, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[48]  R. Shanks,et al.  Evaluation of once daily sotalol administration in man. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[49]  M. Freyd,et al.  The Graphic Rating Scale. , 1923 .

[50]  P. Turner,et al.  Preliminary studies on the central effects of lorazepam, a new benzodiazepine. , 1971, The Journal of clinical pharmacology and new drugs.

[51]  R. M. Knights,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF METHYLPHENIDATE (RITALIN) ON THE MOTOR SKILLS AND BEHAVIOR OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING PROBLEMS , 1969, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[52]  A. Lahtinen,et al.  The effect of nitrazepam on manual skill, grip strength, and reaction time with special reference to subjective evaluation of effects on sleep. , 2009, Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica.

[53]  I. Hindmarch.  A repeated dose comparison of three benzodiazepine derivatives (nitrazepam, flurazepam and flunitrazepam) on subjective appraisals of sleep and measures of psychomotor performance the morning following night‐time medication , 1977, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[54]  M. Tansella,et al.  Plasma Concentrations of Diazepam, Nordiazepam and Amylobarbitone after Short-term Treatment of Anxious Patients , 1978, Pharmakopsychiatrie, Neuro-Psychopharmakologie.

[55]  Richards Dj,et al.  Lorazepam--a study in psychomotor depression. , 1972 .

[56]  Paul J. Tomer.  Section A Clinical pharmacological studies on lorazepam , 1973 .

[57]  I. Hindmarch.  Some aspects of the effects of clobazam on human psychomotor performance. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[58]  M. Gelder,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF DRUG EFFECTS ON HUMAN PERFORMANCE USING INFORMATION THEORY CONCEPTS. , 1965, British journal of psychology.

[59]  L. Hollister,et al.  A model for evaluation of antianxiety drugs with the use of experimentally induced stress: Comparison of nabilone and diazepam , 1978, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[60]  M Linnoila,et al.  Residual effects and skills related to driving after a single oral administration of diazepam, medazepam or lorazepam. , 1976, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[61]  A. Bond,et al.  Physiological and psychological measures in anxious patients , 1974, Psychological Medicine.

[62]  B. Saletu,et al.  Evaluation of Pharmacodynamic Properties of Psychotropic Drugs: Quantitative EEG, Psychometric and Blood Level Investigations in Normals and Patients , 1979, Pharmakopsychiatrie, Neuro-Psychopharmakologie.

[63]  U. Klotz,et al.  Altered elimination of desmethyldiazepam in the elderly. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[64]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  Repeated dose comparison of nomifensine, imipramine and placebo on subjective assessments of sleep and objective measures of psychomotor performance. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[65]  A. W. Peck,et al.  Differences between light and sound sleepers in the residual effects of nitrazepam. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[66]  J. R. Wittenborn.  Contrasts in antidepressant medications. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[67]  M. Briggs,et al.  Drugs of Dependence Though Not of Abuse: Fenfluramine and Imipramine , 1971, British medical journal.

[68]  C. Hawkins,et al.  Plasma propranolol concentrations and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[69]  E. Palva,et al.  Actions and interactions with alcohol of drugs on psychomotor skills: comparison of diazepam and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. , 1978, Archives internationales de pharmacodynamie et de therapie.

[70]  A. Dimascio,et al.  Comparative effects of oxazepam in "high" and "low" anxious student volunteers. , 1965, Psychosomatics.

[71]  M. Lewis,et al.  The effects of low doses of diazepam on human performance in group administered tasks. , 1978, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[72]  The effects of psilocybin, dextro-amphetamine and placebo on performance of the trail making test. , 1968, Journal of clinical psychology.

[73]  Edwin A. Fleishman,et al.  Psychology and human performance. , 1959 .

[74]  I. Hindmarch.  The effects of the sub-chronic administration of an anti-histamine, clemastine, on tests of car driving ability and psychomotor performance. , 1976, Current medical research and opinion.

[75]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  The effects of combined sedative and anxiolytic preparations on subjective aspects of sleep and objective measure of arousal and performance the morning following nocturnal medication. II. Repeated doses. , 1980, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[76]  T. Royen,et al.  Kinetic and dynamic interaction of clobazam and alcohol. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[77]  Hans J. Eysenck,et al.  Handbook of abnormal psychology , 1962 .

[78]  A. W. Peck,et al.  A comparison of bupropion hydrochloride with dexamphetamine and amitriptyline in healthy subjects. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[79]  A. Neufeldt,et al.  Comparative psychophysiological and mood effects of diazepam and dipotassium clorazepate. , 1973, Biological psychiatry.

[80]  B. Rodda,et al.  Quantitative relationship between blood alcohol concentration and psychomotor performance , 1974, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[81]  R. Kohnen,et al.  The effects of alcohol and caffeine on concentration test performance. , 1979, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[82]  H E ROSVOLD,et al.  A continuous performance test of brain damage. , 1956, Journal of consulting psychology.

[83]  K. Taeuber.  Dynamic interaction of nomifensine with alcohol. , 1977, British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.

[84]  K. Korttila,et al.  PROLONGED RECOVERY AFTER DIAZEPAM SEDATION: THE INFLUENCE OF FOOD, CHARCOAL INGESTION AND INJECTION RATE ON THE EFFECTS OF INTRAVENOUS DIAZEPAM , 1976 .

[85]  A. Nicholson.  Performance and impaired performance. , 1976, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[86]  S. Kanowski,et al.  Impairment of vigilance and performance under lithium-treatment. Studies in patients and normal volunteers. , 1977, Pharmakopsychiatrie, Neuro-Psychopharmakologie.

[87]  L. Goldberg,et al.  Quantitative Studies on Alcohol Tolerance in Man. The Influence of Ethyl Alcohol on Sensory, Motor and Psychological Functions Referred to Blood Alcohol in Normal and Habituated Individuals. , 1943 .

[88]  C. Khare,et al.  Clobazam versus diazepam: a double-blind study in anxiety neurosis [proceedings]. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[89]  I. Hindmarch.  A 1,4-benzodiazepine, temazepam (K 3917), its effect on some psychological parameters of sleep and behaviour. , 1975, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[90]  I. Hindmarch.  A sub-chronic study of the subjective quality of sleep and psychological measures of performance on the morning following night time medication with temazepam. , 1976, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[91]  W H Teichner,et al.  Laws of the simple visual reaction time. , 1972, Psychological review.

[92]  C. Bakker,et al.  Influence of personality type on drug response. , 1966, The American journal of psychiatry.

[93]  C. Khare,et al.  Clobazam Versus Diazepam—A Double‐Blind Study in Anxiety Neurosis , 1978, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[94]  R. Forney,et al.  The influence of a new chlordiazepoxide analogue on human mental and motor performance. , 1967, The Journal of clinical pharmacology and the journal of new drugs.

[95]  G. Hanks,et al.  Evaluation of the effects of clobazam, A 1,5 benzodiazepine, on mood and psychomotor performance in clinically anxious patients in general practice. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[96]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  The effects of triazolam and nitrazepam on sleep quality, morning vigilance and psychomotor performance. , 1980, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[97]  L. Goldberg,et al.  The Antinarcotic Effect of Estrone on Alcohol Intoxication , 1943 .

[98]  A. Bond,et al.  Sedative effects on physiological and psychological measures in anxious patients , 1974, Psychological Medicine.

[99]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  The Effects of an Ergot Alkaloid Derivative (Hydergine) on Aspects of Psychomotor Performance, Arousal, and Cognitive Processing Ability , 1979, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[100]  K. Korttila.  Lack of Impairment in Skills Related to Driving after Intramuscular Administration of Prilocaine or Mepivacaine , 1977, Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica.

[101]  M. Lader,et al.  Hangover Effect of Hypnotics in Man , 1971, Nature.

[102]  T. Seppälä.  Psychomotor skills during acute and two-week treatment with mianserin (ORG GB 94) and amitriptyline, and their combined effects with alcohol. , 1977, Annals of clinical research.

[103]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  The effect of a sub-chronic administration of three dose levels of a 1,5-benzodiazepine derivative, clobazam, on subjective assessments of sleep and aspects of psychomotor performance the morning following night time medication. , 1978, Arzneimittel-Forschung.

[104]  U T Keesey,et al.  Variables determining flicker sensitivity in small fields. , 1970, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[105]  A. Bond,et al.  Residual effects of flunitrazepam. , 1975, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[106]  Kidera Gj,et al.  Aviator performance and the use of hypnotic drugs. , 1972 .

[107]  K. Taeuber,et al.  Pharmacodynamic comparison of the acute effects of nomifensine, amphetamine and placebo in healthy volunteers. , 1979, International journal of clinical pharmacology and biopharmacy.

[108]  G. Besser,et al.  [The interaction of chlordiazepoxide and dexamphetamine in man]. , 1967, Therapie.

[109]  F. Ayd.  Motivations and rewards for volunteering to be an experimental subject , 1972, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[110]  A. Bond,et al.  The use of analogue scales in rating subjective feelings , 1974 .

[111]  Carbon monoxide and phenobarbitone: a comparison of effects on auditory flutter fusion threshold and critical flicker fusion threshold. , 1970, Ergonomics.

[112]  L. Melikian.  The effect of meprobamate on the performance of normal subjects on selected psychological tasks. , 1961, The Journal of general psychology.

[113]  E. Simonson,et al.  The Effect of Small Doses of Alcohol on the Central Nervous System , 1944 .

[114]  R. Savage,et al.  A small controlled study to determine the time of onset of action of oxypertine after oral administration in normal subjects. , 1972, Postgraduate medical journal.

[115]  J. R. Wittenborn,et al.  Psychomotor changes during initial day of benzodiazepine medication. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[116]  A. B. Richards,et al.  Comparative effect in human subjects of chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and placebo on mental and physical performance , 1965, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[117]  K. Andersson,et al.  Effects of cigarette smoking on verbal rote learning and physiological arousal. , 1974, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[118]  R. Luria,et al.  The validity and reliability of the visual analogue mood scale. , 1975, Journal of psychiatric research.

[119]  H. Eysenck,et al.  Drugs and personality. IX. The effects of stimulant and depressant drugs upon visual figural after-effects. , 1960, Journal of Mental Science.

[120]  R. Shor,et al.  Symbol Processing Speed Differences and Symbol Interference Effects in a Variety of Concept Domains. , 1971, The Journal of general psychology.

[121]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  A repeated dose comparison of dichloralphenazone, flunitrazepam and amylobarbitone sodium on some aspects of sleep and early morning behaviour in normal subjects. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[122]  I. Hindmarch.  Effects of hypnotic and sleep-inducing drugs on objective assessments of human psychomotor performance and subjective appraisals of sleep and early morning behaviour. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[123]  I. Hindmarch,et al.  The effects of repeated nocturnal doses of clobazam, dipotassium chlorazepate and placebo on subjective ratings of sleep and early morning behaviour and objective measures of arousal, psychomotor performance and anxiety. , 1979, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[124]  P. Lund-johansen,et al.  Haemodynamic long-term effects of metoprolol at rest and during exercise in essential hypertension. , 1977, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[125]  H. E. Krugman.  Flicker Fusion Frequency as a Function of Anxiety Reaction; An Exploratory Study* , 1947, Psychosomatic medicine.

[126]  C. Darrow.  Psychological effects of drugs. , 1929 .

[127]  M Linnoila,et al.  Effects of diazepam and codeine, alone and in combination with alcohol, on simulated driving , 1974, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[128]  L. Uhr,et al.  Time and dosage effects of meprobamate on simple behavioral tasks. , 1963, The Journal of general psychology.

[129]  S. Cooper,et al.  A technique for investigating the intensity and duration of human psychomotor impairment after intravenous diazepam , 1978 .

[130]  O. Jones.  Relationship between visual and auditory discrimination and anxiety level. , 1958, The Journal of general psychology.

[131]  R. Näätänen,et al.  Selective attention and evoked potentials inhumans — A critical review , 1975, Biological Psychology.

[132]  J. F. Mackworth.  THE EFFECT OF AMPHETAMINE ON THE DETECTABILITY OF SIGNALS IN A VIGILANCE TASK. , 1965, Canadian journal of psychology.

[133]  K. Korttila,et al.  Psychomotor Skills Related to Driving after Intramuscular Administration of Diazepam and Meperidine , 1975, Anesthesiology.

[134]  S. E. Finlay,et al.  A Comparison of the Effects of Varying Dose Levels of Oxypertine on Mood and Physical Performance of Trained Athletes , 1966, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[135]  Edwin A. Fleishman,et al.  Factorial analysis of complex psychomotor performance and related skills. , 1956 .

[136]  A. Broadhurst,et al.  A Clinical and Psychometric Evaluation of Flurazepam as a Hypnotic in Psychiatric Patients , 1975 .

[137]  D. Wechsler.  Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. , 1955 .

[138]  J. Frane,et al.  A clinical study of naproxen-diazepam drug interaction on tests of mood and attention. , 1977, Current Therapeutic Research.

[139]  J. Shaffer,et al.  A CONTROLLED EVALUATION OF CHLORDIAZEPOXIDE (LIBRIUM) IN THE TREATMENT OF CONVALESCING ALCOHOLICS , 1963, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[140]  D. Turner,et al.  Lorazepam as a premedicant in anaesthesia: a pilot study. , 1973, Current medical research and opinion.

[141]  A. Brown,et al.  Cervicofacial abscesses of unknown origin , 1978 .

[142]  R. Aitken.  Measurement of feelings using visual analogue scales. , 1969, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[143]  J. Sambrooks,et al.  ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF FLURAZEPAM AND NITRAZEPAM ON VISUO‐MOTOR PERFORMANCE USING AN AUTOMATED ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE , 1972, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.