Biological Pre-filtration and Surface Water Treatment - Microbial barrier function and removal of natural inorganic and organic compounds

Waterworks in Sweden that apply conventional chemical surface water treatment are facing a number of challenges, including changes in raw water quality and demands for improved particle removal. The chief objective of this work was to evaluate biological pre-filtration for typical Swedish surface water, regarding the removal of natural organic matter, particles, iron and manganese, and taste and odour compounds. Pilot-scale experimental work included the investigation of biofilters fed directly with surface water, using non-adsorptive expanded clay and partly exhausted granular activated carbon. Process combinations with conventional chemical treatment and nanofiltration were investigated. Biological pre-filtration decreased the load of particles and biodegradable organic matter to subsequent treatment processes. Peak loads of added particles were equalised by high initial retention followed by a slow release of attached particles. In chemical treatment with pre-filtration, the removal of µm-size particles became less dependent on the post-sedimentation rapid filters. The experimental study contributed with data on the microbial barrier function of chemical surface water treatment under Swedish conditions with regard to particle-, bacteria- and virus removal. Simple rapid media filtration pre-treatment of surface water caused fast pressure drop development in nanofilter membranes. Biofiltration moderated the increase in pressure drop in comparison to rapid filtration. Destructive analysis of the nanofiltration elements was performed to study the fouling layer on the membrane. Biological pre-filtration alleviated occasional episodes of dissolved manganese and odour compounds in humic surface waters, which are difficult to control by conventional chemical treatment alone. The mechanism of biological removal of two biogenic odour compounds (geosmin and MIB) was found to completely depend on metabolic activity on a non-adsorptive filter medium (expanded clay). Within the Sustainable Urban Water Management program, a systems analysis study was conducted. Hypothetical decentralised systems with drinking water treatment closer to the consumer were compared to conventional centralised treatment regarding energy consumption and microbial risk.

[1]  P A Wilderer,et al.  Applying sustainable water management concepts in rural and urban areas: some thoughts about reasons, means and needs. , 2004, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[2]  F. Lucena,et al.  Assessment of biological activity and fate of organic compounds in a reactor for the measurement of biodegradable organic carbon in water. , 1995, The Journal of applied bacteriology.

[3]  C. Volk.  Biodegradable organic matter measurement and bacterial regrowth in potable water. , 2001, Methods in enzymology.

[4]  W. A. M. Hijnen,et al.  The Effects of Ozonation, Biological Filtration and Distribution on the Concentration of Easily Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) in Drinking Water , 1989 .

[5]  P. Servais,et al.  Determination of the biodegradable fraction of dissolved organic matter in waters , 1987 .

[6]  Daniel A. Okun,et al.  Distributing reclaimed water through dual systems , 1997 .

[7]  M. Lechevallier,et al.  Effects of Conventional Treatment on AOC and BDOC Levels , 2002 .

[8]  D. L. Widrig,et al.  Removal of algal-derived organic material by preozonation and coagulation: Monitoring changes in organic quality by pyrolysis-GC-MS , 1996 .

[9]  M. McGuire,et al.  Overview of Technology for Controlling Off-Flavors in Drinking Water , 1988 .

[10]  A. Grimvall,et al.  Removal of individual off-flavour compounds in water during artificial groundwater recharge and during treatment by alum coagulation/sand filtration , 1987 .

[11]  R. Bohne,et al.  Treatment of ozonated water in biofilters containing different media , 2000 .

[12]  G. Newcombe,et al.  Influence of characterised natural organic material on activated carbon adsorption: II. Effect on pore volume distribution and adsorption of 2-methylisoborneol , 1997 .

[13]  J. C. Hoff,et al.  Removal of Hepatitis A Virus and Rotavirus by Drinking Water Treatment , 1988 .

[14]  Bjarne Nicolaisen,et al.  Developments in membrane technology for water treatment , 2003 .

[15]  A. Zouboulis,et al.  Biological treatment of Mn(II) and Fe(II) containing groundwater: kinetic considerations and product characterization. , 2004, Water research.

[16]  R. Summers,et al.  Evaluation of nanofiltration pretreatments for flux loss control , 2000 .

[17]  T. Bott,et al.  Development of a Rapid Assimilable Organic Carbon Method for Water , 1993, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[18]  M. McGuire,et al.  Evaluating activated carbons for removing low concentrations of taste- and odor-producing organics , 1986 .

[19]  Michael J. Semmens,et al.  Coagulation: Experiences in Organics Removal , 1980 .

[20]  M. McGuire,et al.  GAC adsorber design protocol for the removal of off-flavors , 1993 .

[21]  H. Yeh,et al.  Testing a coke biofilter for the pretreatment of polluted surface water in Taiwan , 1993 .

[22]  S. Jung,et al.  Treatment of taste and odor material by oxidation and adsorption. , 2004, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[23]  J. Ridal,et al.  Removal of Taste and Odour Compounds by Conventional Granular Activated Carbon Filtration , 2001 .

[24]  Michael J. McGuire,et al.  Off-flavor as the consumer's measure of drinking water safety , 1995 .

[25]  M. Rummukainen,et al.  Regional climate scenarios for use in Nordic water resources studies , 2003 .

[26]  P. Lipp,et al.  Integration of ultrafiltration to conventional drinking water treatment for a better particle removal — efficiency and costs? , 1998 .

[27]  Mehmet Kitis,et al.  Microbial removal and integrity monitoring of ro and NF Membranes , 2003 .

[28]  William J. Soucie,et al.  ozone/biofiltration for removing MIB AND GEOSMIN , 2000 .

[29]  R. L. Wolfe,et al.  Assessment of the bacteriological activity associated with granular activated carbon treatment of drinking water , 1990, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[30]  Stefan Panglisch,et al.  Ultra- and microfiltration pilot plant investigations to treat reservoir water , 1998 .

[31]  F. Lucena,et al.  A new dynamic approach to the determination of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in water , 1991 .

[32]  T. Speth,et al.  Nanofiltration Foulants from a Treated Surface Water , 1998 .

[33]  W J Weber.  Distributed optimal technology networks: a concept and strategy for potable water sustainability. , 2002, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[34]  A. Saito,et al.  Microbiological degradation of (-)-geosmin , 1999 .

[35]  G. D. Michalakos.  Removal of iron from potable water using a trickling filter , 1997 .

[36]  T. Thorsen.  Membrane filtration of humic substances — State of the art , 1999 .

[37]  Yan Jin,et al.  Sorption of Viruses during Flow through Saturated Sand Columns , 1997 .

[38]  D. Gatel,et al.  Microbial characteristics of a distribution system fed with nanofiltered drinking water , 1997 .

[39]  P. Mikkelsen,et al.  Collected rainfall as a water source in danish households – what is the potential and what are the costs? , 1999 .

[40]  F. Ribas,et al.  Elimination of Giardia cysts, Cryptosporidium oocysts, turbidity and particles in a drinking water treatment plant with clarification and double filtration , 2000 .

[41]  Dieter M. Imboden,et al.  Energy forecasting and atmospheric CO2 perspectives: two worlds ignore each other , 2000 .

[42]  A. Saito,et al.  Biodegradation of a musty odour component, 2-methylisoborneol , 1996 .

[43]  Pierre Servais,et al.  Comparison of the bacterial dynamics in various French distribution systems , 1995 .

[44]  류재근.  음용수 중의 이취취미 발생물질의 구명 및 제어방안 ( Identification and Treatment of Taste and Odors in Drinking Water ) , 1994 .

[45]  J. Siemiatycki,et al.  Gastrointestinal health effects associated with the consumption of drinking water produced by point-of-use domestic reverse-osmosis filtration units , 1991, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[46]  H. Aldrich,et al.  Isolation and characterization of a bacterium capable of removing taste- and odor-causing 2-methylisoborneol from water. , 2004, Water Research.

[47]  Z. S. Wang,et al.  Synergistic combination of coagulation with biofiltration for drinking water treatment , 1998 .

[48]  Ida M. Sayre,et al.  Public Attitudes Toward Water Utilities , 1986 .

[49]  A. Nasser,et al.  Removal of hepatitis a virus (HAV), poliovirus and MS2 coliphage by coagulation and high rate filtration , 1995 .

[50]  M. Yagi.  Musty Odour Problems in Lake Biwa 1982-1987 , 1988 .

[51]  H. Sumitomo.  Biodegradation of 2-Methylisoborneol by Gravel Sand Filtration , 1992 .

[52]  Shucai Zhu,et al.  Application of membrane technology for drinking water , 1998 .

[53]  Peter M. Huck,et al.  Formation and Removal of Assimilable Organic Carbon During Biological Treatment , 1991 .

[54]  Sayed Siavash Madaeni,et al.  The application of membrane technology for water disinfection , 1999 .

[55]  T. Grischek,et al.  Behaviour of Different Molecular‐weight Fractions of DOC of Elbe River Water during River Bank Infiltration , 1997 .

[56]  Yeongho Lee,et al.  Treatment of taste and odor causing substances in drinking water , 1997 .

[57]  H. Ødegaard,et al.  Biofiltration of Ozonated Humic Water in Expanded Clay Aggregate Filters , 1999 .

[58]  J. Hofman,et al.  Biofouling of membranes for drinking water production , 1998 .

[59]  H. T. Seppánen,et al.  Experiences of Biological Iron and Manganese Removal in Finland , 1992 .

[60]  Seymour S. Kremen,et al.  Silt density indices (SDI), percent plugging factor (%PF): their relation to actual foulant deposition , 1998 .

[61]  H. Ødegaard,et al.  The effect of biofilter loading rate on the removal of organic ozonation by-products , 2000 .

[62]  Mark LeChevallier,et al.  Impact of enhanced and optimized coagulation on removal of organic matter and its biodegradable fraction in drinking water , 2000 .

[63]  M. Yagi,et al.  Odor Problems in Lake Biwa , 1983 .

[64]  A. M. Hurst,et al.  The impact of rainstorm events on coagulation and clarifier performance in potable water treatment. , 2003, The Science of the total environment.

[65]  R. Scott Summers,et al.  Biofiltration performance: part 1, relationship to biomass , 1995 .

[66]  Lars Rosén,et al.  Påverkan på säkerheten i vattenförsörjningen från strandbetande nötkreatur : fallstudie Göta älv , 2003 .

[67]  Ramon G. Lee,et al.  Factors promoting survival of bacteria in chlorinated water supplies , 1988, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[68]  W. F. Young,et al.  Taste and odour threshold concentrations of potential potable water contaminants , 1996 .

[69]  E. Rice,et al.  A survey of BOM in US drinking waters , 1994 .

[70]  G. Newcombe,et al.  Simultaneous adsorption of MIB and NOM onto activated carbon: II. Competitive effects , 2002 .

[71]  Stefan Panglisch,et al.  Monitoring the integrity of capillary membranes by particle counters , 1998 .

[72]  M. McGuire,et al.  AWWA taste and odor survey , 1996 .

[73]  A. Grimvall,et al.  Formation and Removal of Off-Flavour Compounds during Ozonation and Filtration through Biologically Active Sand Filters , 1988 .

[74]  G. Izaguirre,et al.  Bacterial Degradation of 2-Methylisoborneol , 1988 .

[75]  P. Martikainen,et al.  Bacterial biofilm formation on polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene and stainless steel exposed to ozonated water , 2000 .

[76]  Stuart W. Krasner,et al.  Testing Biologically Active Filters for Removing Aldehydes Formed During Ozonation , 1993 .

[77]  D. A. Okun,et al.  Water reclamation and unrestricted nonpotable reuse: a new tool in urban water management. , 2000, Annual review of public health.

[78]  Kenneth A. Thompson.  Water reclamation in the new millennium , 2000 .

[79]  Ian B. Law,et al.  Rouse Hill – Australia's first full scale domestic non-potable reuse application , 1996 .

[80]  D. Kooij.  Assimilable Organic Carbon as an Indicator of Bacterial Regrowth , 1992 .

[81]  M. Søndergaard,et al.  Measurement of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) in lake water with a bioreactor. , 2001, Water research.

[82]  B. Eikebrokk.  Removal of Humic Substances by Coagulation , 1996 .

[83]  G. Amy,et al.  MEMBRANES FOR THE CONTROL OF NATURAL ORGANIC MATTER FROM SURFACE WATERS , 2000 .

[84]  J. Rook.  Chlorination reactions of fulvic acids in natural waters , 1977 .

[85]  Peer C. Kamp,et al.  Development of a membrane integrity monitoring strategy for the UF/RO Heemskerk drinking water treatment plant , 2001 .

[86]  Kazuaki Kawamoto,et al.  Area-wide use of reclaimed water in Tokyo, Japan , 1996 .

[87]  P. Mouchet.  From Conventional to Biological Removal of Iron and Manganese in France , 1992 .

[88]  Allan B. Edwards,et al.  Deterioration of Water Quality in Distribution Systems , 1975 .

[89]  M. Tilja.  Water colour trends in Lake Mälaren , 2003 .

[90]  Kenneth J. Miller.  Protecting Consumers From Cryptosporidiosis , 1994 .

[91]  A. U. Wnorowski,et al.  Tastes and odours in the aquatic environment: a review , 1992 .

[92]  Thomas L. Theis,et al.  Complexation of iron(II) by organic matter and its effect on iron(II) oxygenation , 1974 .

[93]  0. A. Dechlorinated.  Biological filtration for BOM and particle removal : a critical review , 2006 .

[94]  M. Lechevallier,et al.  Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms , 1987, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[95]  M. Otaki,et al.  Virus removal in a membrane separation process , 1998 .

[96]  Michèle Prévost,et al.  A prospective epidemiological study of gastrointestinal health effects due to the consumption of drinking water , 1997 .

[97]  H. Ødegaard,et al.  Practical experiences from membrane filtration plants for humic substance removal , 2000 .

[98]  D. Kooij,et al.  Diagnosis, prediction and prevention of biofouling of NF and RO membranes , 2001 .

[99]  M. McGuire,et al.  Physical Chemical Characterization of Five Earthy-Musty-Smelling Compounds , 1992 .

[100]  G. Amy,et al.  NOM characterization and treatability , 1995 .

[101]  P. L. Stein.  The Great Sydney Water Crisis of 1998 , 2000 .

[102]  P. Huck.  Measurement of Biodegradable Organic Matter and Bacterial Growth Potential in Drinking Water , 1990 .

[103]  T. Sudou,et al.  Studies on a biological filter for musty odor removal in drinking water treatment processes , 1995 .

[104]  I. Xagoraraki,et al.  Removal of Emerging Waterborne Pathogens and Pathogen Indicators by Pilot‐Scale Conventional Treatment , 2004 .

[105]  Tuula Tuhkanen,et al.  MICROBIAL GROWTH IN DRINKING WATERS TREATED WITH OZONE, OZONE/HYDROGEN PEROXIDE OR CHLORINE , 1998 .

[106]  N J Ashbolt,et al.  A theoretical approach to assess microbial risks due to failures in drinking water systems , 2003, International journal of environmental health research.

[107]  Wolfgang Kuehn,et al.  Riverbank Filtration: An Overview , 2000 .

[108]  J. Joret,et al.  Comparison of two techniques for measuring biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in water , 1994 .

[109]  C. Gerba,et al.  Virus Removal by Slow Sand Filtration and Nanofiltration , 1993 .

[110]  A. Grimvall,et al.  Stripping analysis and chromatographic sniffing for the source identification of odorous compounds in drinking water , 1985 .

[111]  W. P. Ball,et al.  Riverbank filtration: Effect of ground passage on NOM character , 2004 .

[112]  J. Jofre,et al.  Bacteriophage removal in water treatment plants , 1995 .

[113]  R. Sinsabaugh,et al.  Using Alternative Oxidants to Remove Dissolved Manganese From Waters Laden With Organics , 1987 .

[114]  J. Fry,et al.  Development and Operational Implementation of a Modified and Simplified Method for Determination of Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) in Drinking Water , 1989 .