The diagnosis of tuberculosis.

Diagnostic testing for tuberculosis has remained unchanged for nearly a century, but newer technologies hold the promise of a true revolution in tuberculosis diagnostics. New tests may well supplant the tuberculin skin test in diagnosing latent tuberculosis infection in much of the world. Tests such as the nucleic acid amplification assays allow more rapid and accurate diagnosing of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis. The appropriate and affordable use of any of these tests depends on the setting in which they are employed.

[1]  H. Yang,et al.  Sputum induction to improve the diagnostic yield in patients with suspected pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1999, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[2]  D. Vlahov,et al.  Comparison between a whole blood interferon-gamma release assay and tuberculin skin testing for the detection of tuberculosis infection among patients at risk for tuberculosis exposure. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[3]  W. Jacobs,et al.  Specific identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with the luciferase reporter mycobacteriophage: use of p-nitro-alpha-acetylamino-beta-hydroxy propiophenone , 1997, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[4]  G. Hoheisel,et al.  Bronchoscopic aspiration and bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of sputum smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis , 2007, Lung.

[5]  R. Wilkinson,et al.  Rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[6]  T. Cleary,et al.  Rapid and Specific Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Using the Smart Cycler Instrument and a Specific Fluorogenic Probe , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[7]  F. Drobniewski,et al.  Comparison of Three Molecular Assays for Rapid Detection of Rifampin Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[8]  William R. Jacobs,et al.  Photographic and Luminometric Detection of Luciferase Reporter Phages for Drug Susceptibility Testing of Clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[9]  J. Fitzgerald,et al.  A meta-analysis of the effect of Bacille Calmette Guérin vaccination on tuberculin skin test measurements , 2002, Thorax.

[10]  F. Kramer,et al.  Detection of Rifampin Resistance inMycobacterium tuberculosis in a Single Tube with Molecular Beacons , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[11]  A. Morris,et al.  Evaluation of the Tuberculin Gamma Interferon Assay: Potential To Replace the Mantoux Skin Test , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[12]  K. Yuen,et al.  Use of PCR in routine diagnosis of treated and untreated pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1993, Journal of clinical pathology.

[13]  O. P. Jaggi,et al.  Fibreoptic bronchoscopy in smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1988, The European respiratory journal.

[14]  H. Rieder Methodological issues in the estimation of the tuberculosis problem from tuberculin surveys. , 1995, Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[15]  N. Saravia,et al.  Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction, adenosine deaminase, and interferon-gamma in pleural fluid for the differential diagnosis of pleural tuberculosis. , 2000, Chest.

[16]  W. Jacobs,et al.  Conditionally replicating luciferase reporter phages: improved sensitivity for rapid detection and assessment of drug susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis , 1997, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[17]  Andersen,et al.  Comparison of Antigen‐Specific T‐Cell Responses of Tuberculosis Patients using Complex or Single Antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis , 1998, Scandinavian journal of immunology.

[18]  T. Malibary,et al.  Diagnostic role of fibreoptic bronchoscopy in tuberculosis in the presence of typical X-ray pictures and adequate sputum. , 1991, Tubercle.

[19]  M. Gennaro,et al.  Heterogeneous Antibody Responses in Tuberculosis , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[20]  Y. Sasaki,et al.  Specific detection of tuberculosis infection: an interferon-gamma-based assay using new antigens. , 2004, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[21]  G. Sarkis,et al.  Rapid assessment of drug susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by means of luciferase reporter phages. , 1993, Science.

[22]  J. Ishihara,et al.  Early diagnosis of tuberculosis by fibreoptic bronchoscopy. , 1992, Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[23]  W. Lam,et al.  Rapid diagnosis of suspected pulmonary tuberculosis by fiberoptic bronchoscopy. , 1982, Tubercle.

[24]  T. Eguale,et al.  Immune Responses to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific Antigen ESAT-6 Signal Subclinical Infection among Contacts of Tuberculosis Patients , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[25]  L. Melville,et al.  A field evaluation of serological and cellular diagnostic tests for bovine tuberculosis. , 1992, Veterinary microbiology.

[26]  R. Agwanda,et al.  National tuberculin survey of Kenya, 1986-1990. , 1998, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[27]  T. Ottenhoff,et al.  Antigenic Equivalence of Human T-Cell Responses toMycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific RD1-Encoded Protein Antigens ESAT-6 and Culture Filtrate Protein 10 and to Mixtures of Synthetic Peptides , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[28]  W. Britton,et al.  Tuberculin-Purified Protein Derivative-, MPT-64-, and ESAT-6-Stimulated Gamma Interferon Responses in Medical Students before and after Mycobacterium bovis BCG Vaccination and in Patients with Tuberculosis , 1999, Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology.

[29]  R. Feldman,et al.  Mycobacterial skin tests in humans 12 years after infection with Mycobacterium marinum. , 1974, The American review of respiratory disease.

[30]  Christopher Dye,et al.  Global Burden of Tuberculosis: Estimated Incidence, Prevalence, and Mortality by Country , 1999 .

[31]  J. T. Crawford,et al.  Evaluation of a line probe assay kit for characterization of rpoB mutations in rifampin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from New York City , 1997, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[32]  G. Ippolito,et al.  Risk factors for tuberculosis in HIV-infected persons. A prospective cohort study. The Gruppo Italiano di Studio Tubercolosi e AIDS (GISTA). , 1995, JAMA.

[33]  H. Reuter,et al.  The use of adenosine deaminase and interferon-gamma as diagnostic tools for tuberculous pericarditis. , 2002, Chest.

[34]  A. Fietta,et al.  Comparison of a whole-blood interferon-gamma assay and tuberculin skin testing in patients with active tuberculosis and individuals at high or low risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. , 2003, American journal of infection control.

[35]  D. Craft,et al.  Value of Examining Three Acid-Fast Bacillus Sputum Smears for Removal of Patients Suspected of Having Tuberculosis from the “Airborne Precautions” Category , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[36]  J. Melby,et al.  ENALAPRIL (MK-421) AND THE WHITE CELL COUNT AND HAEMATOCRIT , 1982, The Lancet.

[37]  R. Prabhakar,et al.  Prevalence study of tuberculous infection over fifteen years, in a rural population in Chingleput district (south India). , 1991, The Indian journal of medical research.

[38]  W. Jacobs,et al.  Rapid identification and susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from MGIT cultures with luciferase reporter mycobacteriophages. , 2003, Journal of medical microbiology.

[39]  R. Lundgren,et al.  Flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1981, Tubercle.

[40]  Karlson Ag,et al.  A comparison of cultures of induced sputum and gastric washings in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1967, Mayo Clinic proceedings.

[41]  Z. L. Wu,et al.  Diagnostic yield of repeated smear microscopy examinations among patients suspected of pulmonary TB in Shandong province of China. , 2000, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[42]  D. Menzies,et al.  Comparison of sputum induction with fiber-optic bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1995, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[43]  D. F. Rochester,et al.  Acid-fast bacilli in sputum smears of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Prevalence and significance of negative smears pretreatment and positive smears post-treatment. , 1984, The American review of respiratory disease.

[44]  E. Perez-stable,et al.  Stability of positive tuberculin tests: are boosted reactions valid? , 1991, The American review of respiratory disease.

[45]  W. Rom,et al.  Clinical utility of the polymerase chain reaction in the diagnosis of infections due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1994, Chest.

[46]  D. Carr,et al.  A comparison of cultures of induced sputum and gastric washings in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1967, Mayo Clinic proceedings.

[47]  M. Perkins,et al.  Detection of Viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis by Reverse Transcriptase-Strand Displacement Amplification of mRNA. , 1999, Methods in molecular medicine.

[48]  D. Jones,et al.  Characterization of a 17-kilodalton antigen of Bartonella henselae reactive with sera from patients with cat scratch disease , 1995, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[49]  M. Conde,et al.  Comparison of sputum induction with fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of tuberculosis: experience at an acquired immune deficiency syndrome reference center in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. , 2000, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[50]  D. Young,et al.  Comparison of polymerase chain reaction for IS6110 and Amplicor in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1996, Thorax.

[51]  A. L. Sørensen,et al.  Recall of long-lived immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in mice. , 1995, Journal of immunology.

[52]  T. Martin,et al.  Evaluation of the BACTEC MGIT 960 system for the recovery of mycobacteria. , 2000, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[53]  J. S. Bower,et al.  Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis by flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy. , 1979, The American review of respiratory disease.

[54]  B. Shumba,et al.  Comparison of two bacteriophage tests and nucleic acid amplification for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Africa. , 2004, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[55]  D. Schwartz,et al.  Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis using PCR assays on sputum collected within 24 hours of hospital admission. , 1998, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[56]  H. Mollenkopf,et al.  Differential T cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESAT6 in tuberculosis patients and healthy donors , 1998, European journal of immunology.

[57]  R. Agwanda,et al.  Effect of non-tuberculous Mycobacteria infection on tuberculin results among primary school children in Kenya. , 1995, East African medical journal.

[58]  A. Zaha,et al.  Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by a polymerase chain reaction colorimetric dot-blot assay. , 2004, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[59]  P. Della‐Latta,et al.  Comprehensive evaluation of performance, laboratory application, and clinical usefulness of two direct amplification technologies for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. , 1998, American journal of clinical pathology.

[60]  G. Pfyffer,et al.  Diagnostic performance of amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test with cerebrospinal fluid, other nonrespiratory, and respiratory specimens , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[61]  A. Poulsen Some clinical features of tuberculosis. , 1957, Acta tuberculosea Scandinavica.

[62]  P. Andersen,et al.  Specific immune-based diagnosis of tuberculosis , 2000, The Lancet.

[63]  H. Soini,et al.  Line probe assay in the rapid detection of rifampin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis directly from clinical specimens. , 1999, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[64]  S. Cole,et al.  Physical mapping of Mycobacterium bovis BCG pasteur reveals differences from the genome map of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and from M. bovis. , 1996, Microbiology.

[65]  E. Desmond,et al.  Rapid Detection of Isoniazid and Rifampin Resistance Mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex from Cultures or Smear-Positive Sputa by Use of Molecular Beacons , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[66]  H. Rieder,et al.  Epidemiologic basis of tuberculosis control , 1999 .

[67]  A. Deutsch,et al.  Bronchoscopy and transbronchial biopsy in evaluation of patients with suspected active tuberculosis. , 1981, The American journal of medicine.

[68]  P. Andersen,et al.  Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity Responses to ESAT-6 and MPT64 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the Guinea Pig , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[69]  S. Ichiyama,et al.  Comparative study of a biphasic culture system (Roche MB Check system) with a conventional egg medium for recovery of mycobacteria. Aichi Mycobacteriosis Research Group. , 1993, Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[70]  F. Jones The relative efficacy of spontaneous sputa, aerosol-induced sputa, and gastric aspirates in the bacteriologic diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1966, Diseases of the chest.

[71]  P. Hopewell,et al.  Clinical practice. Latent tuberculosis infection. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[72]  J. Spadoro,et al.  Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by PCR amplification with pan-Mycobacterium primers and hybridization to an M. tuberculosis-specific probe , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[73]  H. Albert,et al.  Simple, phage-based (FASTPplaque) technology to determine rifampicin resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis directly from sputum. , 2004, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[74]  S. Jindal,et al.  Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in pleural fluid. , 2001, Chest.

[75]  D. Vlahov,et al.  Prevalence of tuberculin positivity and skin test anergy in HIV-1-seropositive and -seronegative intravenous drug users. , 1992, JAMA.

[76]  L. Doğancı,et al.  The evaluation of FASTPlaqueTB test for the rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 2003, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[77]  C. Abe,et al.  Mutations in the rpoB Gene of Rifampin-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains Isolated Mostly in Asian Countries and Their Rapid Detection by Line Probe Assay , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[78]  W. Britton,et al.  Human T‐Cell Epitopes on the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Secreted Protein MPT64 , 1996, Scandinavian journal of immunology.

[79]  A. Widmer,et al.  Polymerase chain reaction for Mycobacterium tuberculosis: impact on clinical management of refugees with pulmonary infiltrates. , 2004, Chest.

[80]  K. Sepkowitz Tuberculin skin testing and the health care worker: lessons of the Prophit Survey. , 1996, Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[81]  John Chan,et al.  Rapid Film-Based Determination of Antibiotic Susceptibilities ofMycobacterium tuberculosis Strains by Using a Luciferase Reporter Phage and the Bronx Box , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[82]  G. Kumarasinghe,et al.  Relationship between estimated pretest probability and accuracy of automated Mycobacterium tuberculosis assay in smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis. , 2000, Chest.

[83]  A. Kritski,et al.  Diagnosing pleural tuberculosis. , 2004, Chest.

[84]  S. Jones,et al.  Field comparison of the interferon-gamma assay and the intradermal tuberculin test for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis. , 1991, Australian veterinary journal.

[85]  S. Gordillo,et al.  Comparative Evaluation of the New Version of the INNO-LiPA Mycobacteria and GenoType Mycobacterium Assays for Identification of Mycobacterium Species from MB/BacT Liquid Cultures Artificially Inoculated with Mycobacterial Strains , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[86]  R. Horsburgh,et al.  Priorities for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in the United States. , 2004, The New England journal of medicine.

[87]  D. Williams,et al.  Dual skin testing with Mycobacterium avium sensitin and purified protein derivative to discriminate pulmonary disease due to M. avium complex from pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[88]  A. Poniecka,et al.  Löwenstein-Jensen media. No longer necessary for mycobacterial isolation. , 2000, American journal of clinical pathology.

[89]  D. Menzies Sputum induction: simpler, cheaper, and safer--but is it better? , 2003, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[90]  C. F. von Reyn,et al.  Cellular immune responses to ESAT-6 discriminate between patients with pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium avium complex and those with pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1999, Clinical and diagnostic laboratory immunology.

[91]  Evaluation of the BDProbeTec ET System for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Pulmonary and Extrapulmonary Samples: a Multicenter Study , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[92]  F. Vlaspolder,et al.  Diagnostic value of an amplification method (Gen-Probe) compared with that of culture for diagnosis of tuberculosis , 1995, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[93]  L. Blumberg,et al.  Rapid indication of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis from liquid cultures using FASTPlaqueTB-RIF, a manual phage-based test. , 2002, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[94]  S. X. Wang,et al.  Evaluation of Three Nucleic Acid Amplification Methods for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Respiratory Specimens , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[95]  T. Ottenhoff,et al.  Use of ESAT-6 and CFP-10 antigens for diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[96]  G. Comstock,et al.  False tuberculin test results. , 1975, Chest.

[97]  A. Poulsen Some clinical features of tuberculosis. 1. Incubation period. , 1950, Acta tuberculosea Scandinavica.

[98]  J. Farrar,et al.  Comparison of Conventional Bacteriology with Nucleic Acid Amplification (Amplified Mycobacterium Direct Test) for Diagnosis of Tuberculous Meningitis before and after Inception of Antituberculosis Chemotherapy , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[99]  L. Hutchinson,et al.  Comparison of the amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) direct test, Amplicor MTB PCR, and IS6110-PCR for detection of MTB in respiratory specimens. , 1996, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[100]  B. Petrini,et al.  Improved Sensitivity of Nucleic Acid Amplification for Rapid Diagnosis of Tuberculous Meningitis , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[101]  R. Bhagat,et al.  The value of routine bronchial aspirate culture at fibreoptic bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1991, Tubercle.

[102]  A. Kok-Jensen,et al.  Performance of whole blood IFN-gamma test for tuberculosis diagnosis based on PPD or the specific antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10. , 2001, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[103]  Y. Sasaki,et al.  Specific Detection of Tuberculosis Infection: An Interferon-γ–based Assay Using New Antigens , 2004 .

[104]  H. J. Hnatyszyn,et al.  Rapid and Specific Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from Acid-Fast Bacillus Smear-Positive Respiratory Specimens and BacT/ALERT MP Culture Bottles by Using Fluorogenic Probes and Real-Time PCR , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[105]  S. Sharp,et al.  A comparison of the Bactec 9000MB system and the Septi-Chek AFB system for the detection of mycobacteria. , 1997, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[106]  É. Carpentier,et al.  Diagnosis of tuberculosis by Amplicor Mycobacterium tuberculosis test: a multicenter study , 1995, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[107]  G. Woods,et al.  Clinical evaluation of the Roche AMPLICOR PCR Mycobacterium tuberculosis test for detection of M. tuberculosis in respiratory specimens , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[108]  P. Potgieter,et al.  Use of the flexible fibreoptic bronchoscope in diagnosis of sputum-negative pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1982, Thorax.

[109]  P. Barnes,et al.  Yield of bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. , 1992, Chest.

[110]  John M Colford,et al.  Nucleic acid amplification tests in the diagnosis of tuberculous pleuritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2004, BMC infectious diseases.

[111]  T. Hartung,et al.  Suspected pulmonary tuberculosis in rural South Africa--sputum induction as a simple diagnostic tool? , 2002, South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde.

[112]  T. Ottenhoff,et al.  Detection of active tuberculosis infection by T cell responses to early-secreted antigenic target 6-kDa protein and culture filtrate protein 10. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[113]  H. Vordermeier,et al.  Use of Synthetic Peptides Derived from the Antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 for Differential Diagnosis of Bovine Tuberculosis in Cattle , 2001, Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology.

[114]  J. Watson,et al.  Fiberbronchoscopy in smear-negative miliary tuberculosis. , 1990, Chest.

[115]  C. Piersimoni,et al.  Performance Assessment of Two Commercial Amplification Assays for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex from Respiratory and Extrapulmonary Specimens , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[116]  M. Behr,et al.  Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from patients smear-negative for acid-fast bacilli , 1999, The Lancet.

[117]  R. Baughman,et al.  Bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage in tuberculosis and fungal infections. , 1991, Chest.

[118]  D. Mitchell,et al.  Comparison of polymerase chain reaction amplification of two mycobacterial DNA sequences, IS6110 and the 65kDa antigen gene, in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1992, Thorax.

[119]  H. Ayles,et al.  Rapid detection of active and latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-positive individuals by enumeration of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T cells , 2002, AIDS.

[120]  P. Klenerman,et al.  Direct Ex Vivo Analysis of Antigen-Specific IFN-γ-Secreting CD4 T Cells in Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Infected Individuals: Associations with Clinical Disease State and Effect of Treatment1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[121]  B. Barrell,et al.  Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence , 1998, Nature.

[122]  John M Colford,et al.  Diagnostic accuracy of nucleic acid amplification tests for tuberculous meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. , 2003, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[123]  P. Klatser,et al.  Cost-effectiveness of the polymerase chain reaction versus smear examination for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in Kenya: a theoretical model. , 1998, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[124]  J. Vekemans,et al.  Tuberculosis Contacts but Not Patients Have Higher Gamma Interferon Responses to ESAT-6 than Do Community Controls in The Gambia , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[125]  T. Ottenhoff,et al.  Tuberculin Skin Testing Compared with T-Cell Responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis-Specific and Nonspecific Antigens for Detection of Latent Infection in Persons with Recent Tuberculosis Contact , 2001, Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology.

[126]  L. Harvill,et al.  Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis , 1990, Southern medical journal.

[127]  P. Andersen,et al.  Comparison of tuberculin skin test and new specific blood test in tuberculosis contacts. , 2004, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[128]  S. Reed,et al.  Molecular and Immunological Characterization ofMycobacterium tuberculosis CFP-10, an Immunodiagnostic Antigen Missing in Mycobacterium bovis BCG , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[129]  P. Murray,et al.  The acid-fast stain: a specific and predictive test for mycobacterial disease. , 1980, Annals of internal medicine.

[130]  D. Glenn,et al.  Comparison of a radiometric method (BACTEC) and conventional culture media for recovery of mycobacteria from smear-negative specimens , 1983, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[131]  R Menzies,et al.  Effect of bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccination on tuberculin reactivity. , 1992, The American review of respiratory disease.

[132]  R. Ridzon,et al.  Sputum induction versus fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[133]  A. Wallgren The time-table of tuberculosis. , 1948, Tubercle.

[134]  T. Harkin,et al.  Screening by specialists to reduce unnecessary test ordering in patients evaluated for tuberculosis. , 1998, Chest.

[135]  Hiroshi Koyama,et al.  Diagnostic value of adenosine deaminase in tuberculous pleural effusion: a meta-analysis , 2003, Annals of clinical biochemistry.

[136]  A. Sloutsky,et al.  Practical Strategies for Performance Optimization of the Enhanced Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct Test , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[137]  V. Udompanich,et al.  Fiberoptic bronchoscopy in diagnosis of patients with suspected active pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1989, Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet thangphaet.

[138]  H. Reuter,et al.  The Use of Adenosine Deaminase and Interferon-γ as Diagnostic Tools for Tuberculous Pericarditis , 2002 .

[139]  Igor Mokrousov,et al.  Allele-Specific rpoB PCR Assays for Detection of Rifampin-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Sputum Smears , 2003, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[140]  M. Weinstein,et al.  Are Three Sputum Acid-Fast Bacillus Smears Necessary for Discontinuing Tuberculosis Isolation? , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[141]  P. Andersen,et al.  Evidence for occurrence of the ESAT-6 protein in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and virulent Mycobacterium bovis and for its absence in Mycobacterium bovis BCG , 1996, Infection and immunity.

[142]  A. Heydenrych,et al.  Performance of a rapid phage-based test, FASTPlaqueTB, to diagnose pulmonary tuberculosis from sputum specimens in South Africa. , 2002, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[143]  A. Wells,et al.  Induced sputum and bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis , 2002, Thorax.

[144]  S. Chaparas,et al.  Tuberculin test. Variability with the Mantoux procedure. , 1985, The American review of respiratory disease.

[145]  G. Pfyffer,et al.  Direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in respiratory specimens by a target-amplified test system , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[146]  E. Vynnycky,et al.  Tuberculin sensitivity: conversions and reversions in a rural African population. , 1999, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[147]  S. Kaufmann,et al.  Increased Numbers of ESAT-6- and Purified Protein Derivative-Specific Gamma Interferon-Producing Cells in Subclinical and Active Tuberculosis Infection , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[148]  P. Barnes Diagnosing latent tuberculosis infection: turning glitter to gold. , 2004, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[149]  R. O'brien,et al.  New tools for the diagnosis of tuberculosis: the perspective of developing countries. , 1998, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[150]  D. Menzies,et al.  Yield of smear, culture and amplification tests from repeated sputum induction for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 2001, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[151]  M. Nieminen,et al.  Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosisComplex in Sputum Specimens by the Automated Roche Cobas Amplicor Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Test , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[152]  H. Sintonen,et al.  Economic evaluation of the use of PCR assay in diagnosing pulmonary TB in a low-incidence area , 2004, European Respiratory Journal.

[153]  C. Parry,et al.  The use of sputum induction for establishing a diagnosis in patients with suspected pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi. , 1995, Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[154]  S. Reed,et al.  Clinical efficacy of the amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1996, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[155]  J Coste,et al.  Reliability of Tuberculin Skin Test Measurement , 1997, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[156]  R. D'amato,et al.  Rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis in various biopsy and body fluid specimens by the AMPLICOR Mycobacterium tuberculosis polymerase chain reaction test. , 1998, Chest.

[157]  A. Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Role of clinical judgment in the application of a nucleic acid amplification test for the rapid diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 2003, Chest.

[158]  S. Jones,et al.  A sandwich enzyme immunoassay for bovine interferon-gamma and its use for the detection of tuberculosis in cattle. , 1990, Australian veterinary journal.

[159]  W. Britton,et al.  Expression of Mycobacterium tuberculosis MPT64 in recombinant Myco. smegmatis: purification, immunogenicity and application to skin tests for tuberculosis , 1996, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[160]  M. F. Tenholder,et al.  A ten-year experience with fiberoptic bronchoscopy for mycobacterial isolation. Impact of the Bactec system. , 1986, The American review of respiratory disease.

[161]  R. Courcol,et al.  Comparison of the Real-Time PCR Method and the Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis Direct Test for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Pulmonary and Nonpulmonary Specimens , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[162]  J. Blackwell,et al.  BCG-induced increase in interferon-gamma response to mycobacterial antigens and efficacy of BCG vaccination in Malawi and the UK: two randomised controlled studies , 2002, The Lancet.

[163]  G. Comstock Frost revisited: the modern epidemiology of tuberculosis. , 1975, American journal of epidemiology.

[164]  V. Thomsen,et al.  Direct Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Clinical Specimens in Low- and High-Incidence Countries by Line Probe Assay , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[165]  S. Dorman,et al.  Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of the Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct Test as Used Routinely on Smear-Positive Respiratory Specimens , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[166]  P. Q. Edwards,et al.  Story of the tuberculin test from an epidemiologic viewpoint. , 1960, The American review of respiratory disease.

[167]  J. Jenne Story of the tuberculin test from an epidemiologic viewpoint. , 1960 .

[168]  B. D. da Fonseca,et al.  Combined use of the polymerase chain reaction and detection of adenosine deaminase activity on pleural fluid improves the rate of diagnosis of pleural tuberculosis. , 2003, Chest.

[169]  R. Chaisson,et al.  Evaluation of a whole-blood interferon-gamma release assay for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in 2 study populations. , 2002, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[170]  P. Andersen,et al.  Comparative Evaluation of Low-Molecular-Mass Proteins fromMycobacterium tuberculosis Identifies Members of the ESAT-6 Family as Immunodominant T-Cell Antigens , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[171]  H. Dockrell,et al.  Human cytolytic and interferon gamma-secreting CD8+ T lymphocytes specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[172]  L. Blumberg,et al.  Evaluation of FASTPlaqueTB-RIF, a rapid, manual test for the determination of rifampicin resistance from Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures. , 2001, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[173]  C. Dye,et al.  Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. , 1999, JAMA.

[174]  Samy I McFarlane,et al.  Medical-Resource Use for Suspected Tuberculosis in a New York City Hospital , 1998, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[175]  F. Kramer,et al.  Genotypic Analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Two Distinct Populations Using Molecular Beacons: Implications for Rapid Susceptibility Testing , 2000, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[176]  J. Deeks,et al.  Enhanced contact tracing and spatial tracking of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells , 2001, The Lancet.

[177]  J. Chang,et al.  Long-lived immune response to early secretory antigenic target 6 in individuals who had recovered from tuberculosis. , 2001, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[178]  P. Andersen,et al.  Key epitopes on the ESAT-6 antigen recognized in mice during the recall of protective immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1996, Journal of immunology.

[179]  A. Tsang,et al.  Re-evaluation of sputum staining for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1979, The American review of respiratory disease.

[180]  M. Amicosante,et al.  Evaluation of the BDProbeTec strand displacement amplification assay in comparison with the AMTD II direct test for rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 2004, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[181]  K. Sepkowitz,et al.  Comparison of induced versus expectorated sputum for diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis by acid-fast smear. , 1997, American journal of infection control.

[182]  L. Solbiati,et al.  Monitoring RF ablation , 2004, European radiology.

[183]  G. Woods,et al.  Clinical Evaluation of the Enhanced Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct Test for Rapid Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Prison Inmates , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[184]  D. T. Carr The tuberculin skin test. , 1972, The American review of respiratory disease.

[185]  N. Desem,et al.  Development of a Human Gamma Interferon Enzyme Immunoassay and Comparison with Tuberculin Skin Testing for Detection ofMycobacterium tuberculosis Infection , 1998, Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology.

[186]  F. Morell,et al.  Diagnostic value of bronchoalveolar lavage in suspected pulmonary tuberculosis. , 1988, Chest.

[187]  Zhong-yi Hu,et al.  Rapid Detection of rpoB Gene Mutations in Rifampin-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Isolates in Shanghai by Using the Amplification Refractory Mutation System , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[188]  G. Woods,et al.  Evaluation of a Modified Gen-Probe Amplified Direct Test for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex Organisms in Cerebrospinal Fluid , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[189]  J. Watters,et al.  Two-step tuberculin skin testing of injection drug users recruited from community-based settings. , 1997, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[190]  B. Gicquel,et al.  A Mycobacterium tuberculosis operon encoding ESAT-6 and a novel low-molecular-mass culture filtrate protein (CFP-10). , 1998, Microbiology.

[191]  J. Bearman,et al.  A STUDY OF VARIABILITY IN TUBERCULIN TEST READING. , 2015, The American review of respiratory disease.

[192]  P. Wood,et al.  Development of a simple, rapid in vitro cellular assay for bovine tuberculosis based on the production of gamma interferon. , 1990, Research in veterinary science.

[193]  T. Eguale,et al.  Human T cell responses to the ESAT-6 antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[194]  National Tuberculosis Programme. , 1974, The Nursing journal of India.

[195]  J. Deeks,et al.  Comparison of T-cell-based assay with tuberculin skin test for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a school tuberculosis outbreak , 2003, The Lancet.

[196]  D. Vlahov,et al.  Comparison of a tuberculin interferon-gamma assay with the tuberculin skin test in high-risk adults: effect of human immunodeficiency virus infection. , 1997, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[197]  M. Patarroyo,et al.  Properties of proteins MPB64, MPB70, and MPB80 of Mycobacterium bovis BCG , 1986, Infection and immunity.

[198]  W. Bishai,et al.  Comparison of a whole-blood interferon gamma assay with tuberculin skin testing for detecting latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. , 2001, JAMA.

[199]  P. Andersen,et al.  Predominant recognition of the ESAT-6 protein in the first phase of interferon with Mycobacterium bovis in cattle , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[200]  S. Greco,et al.  Adenosine deaminase and interferon gamma measurements for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleurisy: a meta-analysis. , 2003, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[201]  J. Conly,et al.  Evaluation of Roche Amplicor PCR assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[202]  P. Cardona,et al.  Comparative Evaluation of Initial and New Versions of the Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct Test for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Respiratory and Nonrespiratory Specimens , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[203]  D. Persing,et al.  Clinical Evaluation of the Gen-Probe Amplified Direct Test for Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosisComplex Organisms in Cerebrospinal Fluid , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[204]  P. Andersen,et al.  The potential of the ESAT-6 antigen secreted by virulent mycobacteria for specific diagnosis of tuberculosis. , 1997, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[205]  C. Moreno,et al.  Routine use of Gen-Probe Amplified Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Direct (MTD) test for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with smear-positive and smear-negative specimens. , 2003, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[206]  M. Harboe Antigens of PPD, old tuberculin, and autoclaved Mycobacterium bovis BCG studied by crossed immunoelectrophoresis. , 2015, The American review of respiratory disease.

[207]  Update: Nucleic acid amplification tests for tuberculosis. , 2000, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[208]  L. Haramati,et al.  Effect of HIV status on chest radiographic and CT findings in patients with tuberculosis. , 1997, Clinical radiology.

[209]  L. The Relative Efficacy of Spontaneous Sputa , Aerosol-Induced Sputa , and Gastric Aspirates in the Bacteriologic Diagnosis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis * , 2022 .

[210]  C. Spivey,et al.  The use of hypertonic aerosol in production of sputum for diagnosis of tuberculosis. Comparison with gastric specimens. , 1961, Diseases of the chest.

[211]  D. Anantharaman,et al.  Prevalence of non-specific sensitivity in some parts of India. , 1975, The Indian journal of medical research.

[212]  P. Martín-Dávila,et al.  Adenosine deaminase activity in cerebrospinal fluid of HIV-infected patients: limited value for diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis , 2004, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[213]  Charles L Daley,et al.  Yield of sputum induction in the diagnosis of pleural tuberculosis. , 2003, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[214]  A. L. Sørensen,et al.  Purification and characterization of a low-molecular-mass T-cell antigen secreted by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , 1995, Infection and immunity.

[215]  P. Kvale,et al.  Tuberculin and Anergy Testing in HIV-Seropositive and HIV-Seronegative Persons , 1993, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[216]  G. Santini,et al.  Comparative Evaluation of the New Gen-Probe Mycobacterium tuberculosis Amplified Direct Test and the Semiautomated Abbott LCx Mycobacterium tuberculosis Assay for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Respiratory and Extrapulmonary Specimens , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[217]  P. Andersen,et al.  Diagnosis of Tuberculosis Based on the Two Specific Antigens ESAT-6 and CFP10 , 2000, Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology.

[218]  G. Woods,et al.  The role of clinical suspicion in evaluating a new diagnostic test for active tuberculosis: results of a multicenter prospective trial. , 2000, JAMA.

[219]  F. Jamieson,et al.  Routine use of the Gen-Probe MTD2 amplification test for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical specimens in a large public health mycobacteriology laboratory. , 1999, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[220]  A. Hill,et al.  Enumeration of T cells specific for RD1-encoded antigens suggests a high prevalence of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in healthy urban Indians. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[221]  R. Davidson,et al.  Comparison of bronchoscopy and gastric washings in the investigation of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[222]  G. Mahairas,et al.  Molecular analysis of genetic differences between Mycobacterium bovis BCG and virulent M. bovis , 1996, Journal of bacteriology.

[223]  L. Reichman A scandalous incompetence...continued. , 1998, Chest.

[224]  P. Barnes Diagnosing latent tuberculosis infection: the 100-year upgrade. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[225]  E. Bateman,et al.  Role of the neodymium YAG laser in the management of tracheal tumours. , 1986, Thorax.

[226]  E. Palenque,et al.  Comparison of bronchial washing, brushing and biopsy for diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis , 1987, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[227]  W. Jacobs,et al.  Luciferase Reporter Mycobacteriophages for Detection, Identification, and Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing ofMycobacterium tuberculosis in Mexico , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[228]  S. Jones,et al.  Sensitivity and specificity of a gamma interferon blood test for tuberculosis infection. , 1998, The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

[229]  D. Snider Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccinations and tuberculin skin tests. , 1985, JAMA.

[230]  G. Schoolnik,et al.  Comparative genomics of BCG vaccines by whole-genome DNA microarray. , 1999, Science.