Predicting Radiometric Effects of a Rough Sea Surface, Whitecaps, Foam, and Spray Using SURFER 2D

Whitecap (WC) formation due to waves breaking on a wind-roughened sea surface facilitates the exchange of mass, momentum, and energy across the air–sea interface. While approximate analytical electromagnetic (EM) models paired with surface gravity wave spectra have been used to predict surface roughness emissivity enhancement, these methods do not reveal details of the response to foam, breaking wave, and WC geometry. They also ignore possible coupling between the roughness and WC emissivity effects. We report the application of a full-wave finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) EM model to investigate the separate and combined emissivity effects of specific surface roughness profiles, associated WC fields, and overlying spray. The model solves Maxwell's equations directly for an arbitrary free space and dielectric configuration. It is applied to multiple dielectric layers representing foam and spray overlying flat and rough sea surfaces. The foam layer profiles are adapted from Anguelova's L-band radiative transfer model and the rough surface is a statistical realization of the Kudryavtsev gravity wave spectrum. The model is also used to investigate the secondary effect of sea state on emissivity for a given mean square slope, which is the primary factor governing rough surface emissivity enhancement. The accuracy and precision of the FDTD model emissivity estimates and the detectability of WCs using L-band radiometry are assessed under various wind conditions, including those of tropical storm and category 1 hurricane strength. The prospects for performing Monte Carlo simulations for stronger winds and deterministic simulations of breakers with WCs of various void fractions, shapes, and scales are also considered.