Analysis of On-Board Photovoltaics for a Battery Electric Bus and Their Impact on Battery Lifespan

Heavy-duty electric powertrains provide a potential solution to the high emissions and low fuel economy of trucks, buses, and other heavy-duty vehicles. However, the cost, weight, and lifespan of electric vehicle batteries limit the implementation of such vehicles. This paper proposes supplementing the battery with on-board photovoltaic modules. In this paper, a bus model is created to analyze the impact of on-board photovoltaics on electric bus range and battery lifespan. Photovoltaic systems that cover the bus roof and bus sides are considered. The bus model is simulated on a suburban bus drive cycle on a bus route in Davis, CA, USA for a representative sample of yearly weather conditions. Roof-mounted panels increased vehicle driving range by 4.7% on average annually, while roof and side modules together increased driving range by 8.9%. However, variations in weather conditions meant that this additional range was not reliably available. For constant vehicle range, rooftop photovoltaic modules extended battery cycle life by up to 10% while modules on both the roof and sides extended battery cycle life by up to 19%. Although side-mounted photovoltaics increased cycle life and range, they were less weight- and cost-effective compared to the roof-mounted panels.

[1]  Mohammadhosein Safari,et al.  Life-Prediction Methods for Lithium-Ion Batteries Derived from a Fatigue Approach I. Introduction: Capacity-Loss Prediction Based on Damage Accumulation , 2010 .

[2]  A. Kapoor,et al.  Exact analytical solutions of the parameters of real solar cells using Lambert W-function , 2004 .

[3]  J. de la Casa,et al.  Integration of PV systems on health emergency vehicles. The FIVE project , 2004 .

[4]  Hongwen He,et al.  Evaluation of Lithium-Ion Battery Equivalent Circuit Models for State of Charge Estimation by an Experimental Approach , 2011 .

[5]  Akinori Sato,et al.  Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar Hybrid Vehicles Part 1: Analysis of Solar Hybrid Vehicle Potential Considering Well-to-Wheel GHG Emissions , 2016 .

[6]  H. Manz,et al.  Empirical validation of models to compute solar irradiance on inclined surfaces for building energy simulation , 2007 .

[7]  Sheldon S. Williamson,et al.  Energy Management Strategies for Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles , 2013 .

[8]  Estimating clear-day solar radiation: An evaluation of three models , 1983 .

[9]  G. Rizzo,et al.  Optimal Design of a Hybrid Electric Car with Solar Cells , 2005 .

[10]  Alan Millner,et al.  Modeling Lithium Ion battery degradation in electric vehicles , 2010, 2010 IEEE Conference on Innovative Technologies for an Efficient and Reliable Electricity Supply.

[11]  S. Wilcox,et al.  Users Manual for TMY3 Data Sets (Revised) , 2008 .

[12]  Simona Onori,et al.  Lithium-ion batteries life estimation for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , 2009, 2009 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference.

[13]  P.L. Chapman,et al.  Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.

[14]  Akinori Sato,et al.  Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar Hybrid Vehicles Part 2: Comparative Analysis of Economic, Environmental, and Usability Benefits , 2016 .

[15]  Stefano Longo,et al.  Comparative analysis of forward-facing models vs backward-facing models in powertrain component sizing , 2013 .

[16]  Zoran Filipi,et al.  Impact of Model-Based Lithium-Ion Battery Control Strategy on Battery Sizing and Fuel Economy in Heavy-Duty HEVs , 2011 .

[17]  Richard D. Braatz,et al.  Modeling and Simulation of Lithium-Ion Batteries from a Systems Engineering Perspective , 2010 .

[18]  M. Graboski,et al.  In-Use Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles , 2000 .

[19]  Mahmoud Abdelhamid,et al.  A comprehensive assessment methodology based on life cycle analysis for on-board photovoltaic solar modules in vehicles , 2014 .

[20]  B. H. Wang,et al.  Simulation of city bus performance based on actual urban driving cycle in China , 2008 .

[21]  Gianfranco Rizzo,et al.  Automotive Applications of Solar Energy , 2010 .

[22]  Kamaruzzaman Sopian,et al.  Assessment of electric vehicle and photovoltaic integration for oil palm mechanisation practise , 2017 .

[23]  Marcelo Gradella Villalva,et al.  Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.

[24]  K. Emery,et al.  Measurement and Characterization of Solar Cells and Modules , 2011 .

[25]  Yonghuang Ye,et al.  Electro-thermal analysis of Lithium Iron Phosphate battery for electric vehicles , 2014 .

[26]  Gilbert Laporte,et al.  Battery degradation and behaviour for electric vehicles: Review and numerical analyses of several models , 2017 .

[27]  P. Yianoulis,et al.  Study on the incorporation of photovoltaic systems as an auxiliary power source for hybrid and electric vehicles , 2012 .

[28]  I. Reda,et al.  Solar position algorithm for solar radiation applications , 2004 .

[29]  Luigi Alberti,et al.  Vehicle-integrated Photovoltaic (ViPV) systems: Energy production, Diesel Equivalent, Payback Time; an assessment screening for trucks and busses , 2014, 2014 Ninth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER).

[30]  Silvia Kreibiehl.  Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2015 , 2015 .

[31]  Adel M. Abdel Dayem,et al.  Set-up and performance investigation of an innovative solar vehicle , 2012 .

[32]  K. Emery,et al.  Temperature dependence of photovoltaic cells, modules and systems , 1996, Conference Record of the Twenty Fifth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference - 1996.

[33]  M. Muller.  Measuring and Modeling Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) , 2010 .

[34]  Jianxin Liu,et al.  Predictive-model-based dynamic coordination control strategy for power-split hybrid electric bus , 2015 .

[35]  Mirosław Wendeker,et al.  A City Bus Electrification Supported by the Photovoltaic Power Modules , 2014 .

[36]  Robert F. Nelson,et al.  Power requirements for batteries in hybrid electric vehicles , 2000 .

[37]  A. Bidram,et al.  Control and Circuit Techniques to Mitigate Partial Shading Effects in Photovoltaic Arrays , 2012, IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics.

[38]  A. A. Abdel-Rahman,et al.  On the emissions from internal-combustion engines: a review , 1998 .

[39]  C.C.Y. Ma,et al.  Statistical comparison of solar radiation correlations Monthly average global and diffuse radiation on horizontal surfaces , 1983 .

[40]  Vahid Esfahanian,et al.  Effect of Different Regenerative Braking Strategies on Braking Performance and Fuel Economy in a Hybrid Electric Bus Employing CRUISE Vehicle Simulation , 2008 .

[41]  Jinlin Xue,et al.  Assessment of agricultural electric vehicles based on photovoltaics in China , 2013 .

[42]  Chengke Zhou,et al.  Modeling of the Cost of EV Battery Wear Due to V2G Application in Power Systems , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.

[43]  L. E. Lesster,et al.  An induction motor power train for EVs: the right power at the right price , 1994 .

[44]  Blake Lundstrom,et al.  Technoeconomic Modeling of Battery Energy Storage in SAM , 2015 .

[45]  F. Assadian,et al.  The Impact of Vehicle-Integrated Photovoltaics on Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicle Battery Cost and Lifespan , 2016 .