Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.

The “Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999” presents the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s recommendations for the prevention of surgical site infections (SSIs), formerly called surgical wound infections. This two-part guideline updates and replaces previous guidelines.Part I, “Surgical Site Infection: An Overview,” describes the epidemiology, definitions, microbiology, pathogenesis, and surveillance of SSIs. Included is a detailed discussion of the pre-, intra-, and postoperative issues relevant to SSI genesis.

[1]  G. Taylor,et al.  Wound infection in total joint arthroplasty: effect of extended wound surveillance on wound infection rates. , 1994, Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie.

[2]  J. Garner.  CDC guideline for prevention of surgical wound infections, 1985. Supersedes guideline for prevention of surgical wound infections published in 1982. (Originally published in November 1985). Revised. , 1986, Infection control : IC.

[3]  R. Rimoldi,et al.  The use of antibiotics for wound prophylaxis in spinal surgery. , 1996, The Orthopedic clinics of North America.

[4]  R. Delamarter,et al.  Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis and postsurgical disc space infections. , 1996, The Orthopedic clinics of North America.

[5]  R. Payne.  Severe outbreak of surgical sepsis due to Staphylococcus aureus of unusual type and origin. , 1967, British medical journal.

[6]  M. McDonald,et al.  Single- versus multiple-dose antimicrobial prophylaxis for major surgery: a systematic review. , 1998, The Australian and New Zealand journal of surgery.

[7]  Rd Dripps,et al.  New classification of physical status , 1963 .

[8]  E. Targarona,et al.  Single-dose antibiotic prophylaxis in patients at high risk for infection in biliary surgery: a prospective and randomized study comparing cefonicid with mezlocillin. , 1990, Surgery.

[9]  B. Dijkmans,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis in craniotomy: a prospective double-blind placebo-controlled study. , 1988, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[10]  R. Rozin,et al.  The Israeli Study of Surgical Infection of drains and the risk of wound infection in operations for hernia. , 1990, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[11]  D. Morrison,et al.  Endotoxins and disease mechanisms. , 1987, Annual review of medicine.

[12]  S. Seltzer,et al.  [Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgery] . , 2000, Annales francaises d'anesthesie et de reanimation.

[13]  A. Hambraeus,et al.  Aerobiology in the operating room--a review. , 1988, The Journal of hospital infection.

[14]  T. K. Hunt,et al.  Wound healing and wound infection. What surgeons and anesthesiologists can do. , 1997, The Surgical clinics of North America.

[15]  D. M. McIntyre.  An epidemic of streptococcus pyogenes puerperal and postoperative sepsis with an unusual carrier site--the anus. , 1968, Transactions of the Pacific Coast Obstetrical and Gynecological Society.

[16]  J. B. Dickey,et al.  Endogenous Candida endophthalmitis after intravenous anesthesia with propofol. , 1991, Archives of ophthalmology.

[17]  B. Walters,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis for cerebrospinal fluid shunts: a metanalysis. , 1994, Neurosurgery.

[18]  R. Gaynes,et al.  Consensus Paper on the Surveillance of Surgical Wound Infections , 1992, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[19]  E. Rosato,et al.  Reduction of operative morbidity and mortality by combined preoperative and postoperative nutritional support. , 1980, Annals of surgery.

[20]  D. Williams,et al.  Effects of physical configuration and chemical structure of suture materials on bacterial adhesion. A possible link to wound infection. , 1984, American journal of surgery.

[21]  Bruun Jn.  Post-operative wound infection. Predisposing factors and the effect of a reduction in the dissemination of staphylococci. , 1970 .

[22]  P. Dineen,et al.  Epidemics of postoperative wound infections associated with hair carriers. , 1973, Lancet.

[23]  H. Eitzen,et al.  A clinical evaluation of chlorhexidine gluconate spray as compared with iodophor scrub for preoperative skin preparation. , 1984, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[24]  R. Gaynes,et al.  An overview of nosocomial infections, including the role of the microbiology laboratory , 1993, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[25]  J. Moylan,et al.  Intraoperative bacterial transmission. , 1975, Surgical forum.

[26]  J. Collins,et al.  Toward further reducing wound infections in cardiac operations. , 1996, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[27]  Howe Cw.  Experimental wound sepsis from transient Escherichia coli bacteremia. , 1969 .

[28]  H. Viard,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis in pulmonary surgery. A prospective randomized double-blind trial of flash cefuroxime versus forty-eight-hour cefuroxime. , 1994, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[29]  T. K. Hunt,et al.  Oxygen as an antibiotic. The effect of inspired oxygen on infection. , 1984, Archives of surgery.

[30]  J CHARNLEY,et al.  A clean‐air operating enclosure , 1964, The British journal of surgery.

[31]  J. Moylan,et al.  Reducing wound infections. Improved gown and drape barrier performance. , 1987, Archives of surgery.

[32]  J. Bartlett,et al.  Efficacy of oral and systemic antibiotic prophylaxis in colorectal operations. , 1983, Archives of surgery.

[33]  B. Friberg.  Ultraclean laminar airflow ORs. , 1998, AORN journal.

[34]  P. Schmitz,et al.  Meta‐analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials of antibiotic prophylaxis in biliary tract surgery , 1990, The British journal of surgery.

[35]  J. Fraker,et al.  The Effects of Topical Oral Clindamycin Antibiotic Rinses on the Bacterial Content of Saliva on Healthy Human Subjects , 1991, Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.

[36]  M. Gilchrist,et al.  Recommendations for Preventing the Spread of Vancomycin Resistance , 1995, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[37]  Ruth S. Waterman,et al.  Evaluation of the protective value of hospital gowns against blood strike-through and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus penetration. , 1998, American journal of infection control.

[38]  E. Fry Donald.  THE SURGICAL INFECTIONS , 1932, ADM; revista de la Asociacion Dental Mexicana.

[39]  A. Terranova.  The Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on Wound Healing , 1991, Plastic surgical nursing : official journal of the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgical Nurses.

[40]  M. Heard,et al.  Preoperative cefoxitin prophylaxis for elective abdominal hysterectomy. , 1985, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[41]  E. Larson,et al.  Alcohol for surgical scrubbing , 1990 .

[42]  D M Perrotta,et al.  Postoperative infections traced to contamination of an intravenous anesthetic, propofol. , 1995, The New England journal of medicine.

[43]  L. Pulliam,et al.  Exopolysaccharide production by viridans streptococci in experimental endocarditis , 1984, Infection and immunity.

[44]  W J Martone,et al.  CDC definitions of nosocomial surgical site infections, 1992: a modification of CDC definitions of surgical wound infections. , 1992, American journal of infection control.

[45]  Ruth S. Waterman,et al.  Current practices of preoperative bowel preparation among North American colorectal surgeons. , 1997, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[46]  Ehrenkranz Nj,et al.  An apparent excess of operative site infections: analyses to evaluate false-positive diagnoses. , 1995 .

[47]  E. P. Dellinger,et al.  Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis and wound infection following breast surgery. , 1993, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[48]  F. Bérard,et al.  POSTOPERATIVE WOUND INFECTIONS: THE INFLUENCE OF ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION OF THE OPERATING ROOM AND OF VARIOUS OTHER FACTORS. , 1964, Annals of surgery.

[49]  W. Lumb,et al.  Further studies with polyglycolic acid (Dexon) and other sutures in infected experimental wounds. , 1981, American journal of veterinary research.

[50]  J. Church,et al.  Effect of systemic steroids on ileal pouch-anal anastomosis in patients with ulcerative colitis , 1996, Diseases of the colon and rectum.

[51]  E. Spitznagel,et al.  ASA Physical Status Classifications: A Study of Consistency of Ratings , 1978, Anesthesiology.

[52]  A. Bisno,et al.  Production of experimental endocarditis by coagulase-negative staphylococci: variability in species virulence. , 1984, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[53]  L. Edwards.  The Epidemiology of 2056 Remote Site Infections and 1966 Surgical Wound Infections Occurring in 1865 Patients , 1976, Annals of surgery.

[54]  E. Love,et al.  Preventive antibiotic usage in traumatic thoracic injuries requiring closed tube thoracostomy. , 1994, Chest.

[55]  S. Mishriki,et al.  The importance of surveillance after discharge from hospital in the diagnosis of postoperative wound infection. , 1990, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[56]  Rotter Ml.  Hygienic hand disinfection. , 1984 .

[57]  R. Haley,et al.  Identifying patients at high risk of surgical wound infection. A simple multivariate index of patient susceptibility and wound contamination. , 1985, American journal of epidemiology.

[58]  P. Gryska,et al.  Postoperative streptococcal wound infection. The anatomy of an epidemic. , 1970, JAMA.

[59]  J. S. Clarke,et al.  Preoperative Oral Antibiotics Reduce Septic Complications of Colon Operations: Results of Prospective, Randomized, Double‐blind Clinical Study , 1977, Annals of surgery.

[60]  D. Holmlund,et al.  Predictors of intraoperative bacterial contamination and postoperative infection in elective colorectal surgery. , 1988, The Journal of hospital infection.

[61]  James R. Allen,et al.  Guidelines for Prevention of Intravascular Infections , 1982, Infection Control.

[62]  D. Vesley,et al.  Fluorimetric Detection of a Bacillus stearothermophilus Spore-Bound Enzyme, α-d-Glucosidase, for Rapid Indication of Flash Sterilization Failure , 1992, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[63]  J. Alexander,et al.  The influence of hair-removal methods on wound infections. , 1983, Archives of surgery.

[64]  Poulsen Kb,et al.  Failure to detect a general reduction of surgical wound infections in Danish hospitals. , 1995 .

[65]  F. Manian,et al.  Adjunctive use of monthly physician questionnaires for surveillance of surgical site infections after hospital discharge and in ambulatory surgical patients: report of a seven-year experience. , 1997, American journal of infection control.

[66]  W. Weyland,et al.  [Perioperative hypothermia]. , 1998, Anasthesiologie, Intensivmedizin, Notfallmedizin, Schmerztherapie : AINS.

[67]  J. Weigelt.  Risk of wound infections in trauma patients. , 1985, American journal of surgery.

[68]  D. Maclaren.  Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery: microbiological factors. , 1993, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.

[69]  R. Habib,et al.  Delayed primary closure of deep sternal wound infections. , 1996, Texas Heart Institute journal.

[70]  B. Doebbeling,et al.  Cardiovascular surgery prophylaxis. A randomized, controlled comparison of cefazolin and cefuroxime. , 1990, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[71]  D. Sessler,et al.  Mild Intraoperative Hypothermia Reduces Production of Reactive Oxygen Intermediates by Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes , 1996, Anesthesia and analgesia.

[72]  Ozuna Rm,et al.  Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis and postsurgical disc space infections. , 1996 .

[73]  Preventing staphylococcal infections by eradicating nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: proceeding with caution. , 1996, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[74]  T. K. Hunt,et al.  Assessment of perfusion in postoperative patients using tissue oxygen measurements , 1987, The British journal of surgery.

[75]  D. Gatehouse,et al.  One‐dose antibiotic prophylaxis against wound infection after appendicectomy: A randomized trial of clindamycin, cefazolin sodium and a placebo , 1979, The British journal of surgery.

[76]  H. Verbrugh,et al.  Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus as a major risk factor for wound infections after cardiac surgery. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[77]  J. Mylotte,et al.  Surveillance of surgical wound infections following open heart surgery. , 1991 .

[78]  P. Jírů,et al.  [The use of disposable draping materials in the operating room and its effect on the postoperative wound infection rate]. , 1989, Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift.

[79]  Michael T. Wilson,et al.  Microbial/host interactions in health and disease: who controls the cytokine network? , 1996, Immunopharmacology.

[80]  R. Lewis,et al.  Efficacy and distribution of single-dose preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in high-risk gastroduodenal surgery. , 1991, Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie.

[81]  R. Haley,et al.  The necessity and efficiency of wound surveillance after discharge. , 1992, Archives of surgery.

[82]  R. Young,et al.  Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of postoperative neurosurgical infections. A randomized clinical trial. , 1987, Journal of neurosurgery.

[83]  S. Larsen,et al.  A comparison of the effects of preoperative whole-body bathing with detergent alone and with detergent containing chlorhexidine gluconate on the frequency of wound infections after clean surgery. The European Working Party on Control of Hospital Infections. , 1988, The Journal of hospital infection.

[84]  N. Deshmukh,et al.  A comparison of 5-minute povidone-iodine scrub and 1-minute povidone-iodine scrub followed by alcohol foam. , 1998, Military medicine.

[85]  L. Rosendorf,et al.  Effect of methods of postdischarge wound infection surveillance on reported infection rates. , 1983, American journal of infection control.

[86]  B. Polk,et al.  Risk factors for surgical-wound infection following cardiac surgery. , 1987, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[87]  S. Ponce de León,et al.  Post-surgical nasal cellulitis outbreak due to Mycobacterium chelonae. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[88]  G. Nicoletti,et al.  Hygienic hand disinfection: a comparative study with chlorhexidine detergents and soap. , 1990, The Journal of hospital infection.

[89]  C. R. Ford,et al.  An appraisal of the role of surgical face masks. , 1967, American journal of surgery.

[90]  Antimicrobial prophylaxis in surgery. , 1986, The Medical letter on drugs and therapeutics.

[91]  W. Morain,et al.  Wound healing in diabetes mellitus. , 1990, Clinics in Plastic Surgery.

[92]  E. Lowbury,et al.  Delayed antimicrobial effects of skin disinfection by alcohol , 1979, Journal of Hygiene.

[93]  C. Ruckley,et al.  Operations for hernia and varicose veins in a day-bed unit. , 1979, British medical journal.

[94]  R. Mertens,et al.  A Computerized Nationwide Network for Nosocomial Infection Surveillance in Belgium , 1994, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[95]  B. Simmons.  CDC guideline for prevention of surgical wound infections , 1983 .

[96]  J. Garcia-Aguilar,et al.  Risks of the Minimal Access Approach for Laparoscopic Surgery: Multivariate Analysis of Morbidity Related to Umbilical Trocar Insertion , 1997, World Journal of Surgery.

[97]  D. Sessler,et al.  Local radiant heating increases subcutaneous oxygen tension. , 1998, American journal of surgery.

[98]  Ceftizoxime versus vancomycin and gentamicin in neurosurgical prophylaxis: a randomized, prospective, blinded clinical study. , 1993 .

[99]  D. Bassett,et al.  Wound infection with Pseudomonas multivorans. A water-borne contaminant of disinfectant solutions. , 1970, Lancet.

[100]  P. Devitt,et al.  Short term metronidazole therapy contrasted with povidone‐iodine spray in the prevention of wound infection after appendicectomy , 1979, The British journal of surgery.

[101]  K. Greene,et al.  Preoperative nutritional status of total joint patients. Relationship to postoperative wound complications. , 1991, The Journal of arthroplasty.

[102]  P. Rubio.  Septisol antiseptic foam: a sensible alternative to the conventional surgical scrub. , 1987, International surgery.

[103]  S F Mishriki,et al.  Factors affecting the incidence of postoperative wound infection. , 1990, The Journal of hospital infection.

[104]  R. Olmsted,et al.  Effect of postdischarge surveillance on rates of infectious complications after cesarean section. , 1992, American journal of infection control.

[105]  D. Vlahov,et al.  Obesity and diabetes as risk factors for postoperative wound infections after cardiac surgery. , 1988, American journal of infection control.

[106]  J. Kuint,et al.  Adenovirus type 8 conjunctivitis outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. , 1993, Archives of disease in childhood.

[107]  G. Grunkemeier,et al.  Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations. , 1997, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[108]  D. McClish,et al.  The accuracy of retrospective chart review in measuring nosocomial infection rates. Results of validation studies in pilot hospitals. , 1980, American journal of epidemiology.

[109]  J. Shapiro,et al.  Multivariate analysis of determinants of postoperative wound infection: a possible basis for intervention. , 1981, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[110]  N. J. Mitchell,et al.  Surgical face masks in modern operating rooms--a costly and unnecessary ritual? , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[111]  W. Browder,et al.  Nonperforative appendicitis: a continuing surgical dilemma. , 1989, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[112]  H. Dudley,et al.  Behaviour of synthetic absorbable sutures with and without synergistic enteric infection. , 1983, European surgical research. Europaische chirurgische Forschung. Recherches chirurgicales europeennes.

[113]  G. Baïkoff,et al.  [Surgical antibiotic prophylaxis]. , 1997, Journal francais d'ophtalmologie.

[114]  J. Boyce.  Should We Vigorously Try to Contain and Control Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus? , 1991, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[115]  J. Boyce,et al.  Hospital reimbursement patterns among patients with surgical wound infections following open heart surgery. , 1990, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[116]  D. Byrne.  Antibiotic prophylaxis in vascular surgery. , 1999, The Journal of hospital infection.

[117]  J. Meakins.  Surgical infection in art. , 1996, Archives of surgery.

[118]  E. Vamvakas,et al.  Blood transfusion and infection after colorectal cancer surgery , 1996, Transfusion.

[119]  G. Hill,et al.  Protein depletion and surgical risk. , 1988, The Australian and New Zealand journal of surgery.

[120]  L. Tompkins,et al.  A cluster of legionella sternal-wound infections due to postoperative topical exposure to contaminated tap water. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[121]  James T. Lee,et al.  Continuous, 10-year wound infection surveillance. Results, advantages, and unanswered questions. , 1990, Archives of surgery.

[122]  M. Wells,et al.  The ramifications of immediate reconstruction in the management of breast cancer. , 1995, The American surgeon.

[123]  G. Ayliffe,et al.  Role of the environment of the operating suite in surgical wound infection. , 1991, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[124]  P. Kutarski,et al.  To dry or not to dry? An assessment of the possible degradation in efficiency of preoperative skin preparation caused by wiping skin dry. , 1993, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[125]  E. Rosato,et al.  Prognostic nutritional index in gastrointestinal surgery. , 1980, American journal of surgery.

[126]  D. Beringer,et al.  Postoperative wound infections complicating adult spine surgery. , 1992, Journal of spinal disorders.

[127]  T. Farley,et al.  An outbreak of surgical-wound infections due to group A streptococcus carried on the scalp. , 1990, The New England journal of medicine.

[128]  D. Trunkey,et al.  Risk of infection after penetrating abdominal trauma. , 1984, The New England journal of medicine.

[129]  H. Hamilton,et al.  Preoperative hair removal , 1977, Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie.

[130]  Ehrenkranz Nj,et al.  Recorded Criteria as a “Gold Standard” for Sensitivity and Specificity Estimates of Surveillance of Nosocomial Infection: A Novel Method to Measure Job Performance , 1995 .

[131]  James R. Allen,et al.  Streptococcal wound infections caused by a vaginal carrier. , 1982, JAMA.

[132]  R. Garibaldi,et al.  Risk factors for postoperative infection. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[133]  N. J. Ehrenkranz,et al.  Surgical wound infection occurrence in clean operations; risk stratification for interhospital comparisons. , 1981, The American journal of medicine.

[134]  T. Heier,et al.  Thermoregulatory vasoconstriction during isoflurane anesthesia minimally decreases cutaneous heat loss. , 1992, Anesthesiology.

[135]  Scher Ks.  Studies on the duration of antibiotic administration for surgical prophylaxis. , 1997 .

[136]  T. Weber.  A prospective analysis of factors influencing outcome after fundoplication. , 1995, Journal of pediatric surgery.

[137]  D. Gauthier,et al.  COST, SAFETY, EFFECTIVENESS , 1993 .

[138]  D. Byrne,et al.  Cost-effectiveness analysis of the use of chlorhexidine detergent in preoperative whole-body disinfection in wound infection prophylaxis. , 1992, The Journal of hospital infection.

[139]  O. Cars,et al.  Throat carrier rates of beta-hemolytic streptococci among healthy adults and children. , 1988, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[140]  J. Gimferrer,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis in non-cardiac thoracic surgery: cefazolin versus placebo. , 1991, European journal of cardio-thoracic surgery : official journal of the European Association for Cardio-thoracic Surgery.

[141]  J. B. Peacock,et al.  Outpatient open cholecystectomy. , 1992, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[142]  P. Thygeson.  The Epidemiology of Epidemic Keratoconjunctivitis. , 1949, Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society.

[143]  D. Hungerford,et al.  Multiple irrigation, debridement, and retention of components in infected total knee arthroplasty. , 1997, The Journal of arthroplasty.

[144]  P. Sharma,et al.  Postoperative wound infection in a pediatric surgical service. , 1986, Journal of pediatric surgery.

[145]  O. B. Jepsen,et al.  Failure to detect a general reduction of surgical wound infections in Danish hospitals. , 1995, Danish medical bulletin.

[146]  D A Rasley,et al.  Surveillance of nosocomial infections , 1989, Critical care nursing quarterly.

[147]  K. Kuntz,et al.  Prospective study of wound complications in continuous infrainguinal incisions after lower limb arterial reconstruction: incidence, risk factors, and cost. , 1996, Surgery.

[148]  S. Haines.  Ceftizoxime versus vancomycin and gentamicin in neurosurgical prophylaxis: a randomized, prospective, blinded clinical study. , 1993, Neurosurgery.

[149]  W. Jarvis,et al.  Nocardia farcinica sternotomy site infections in patients following open heart surgery. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[150]  D. N. Williams,et al.  Prophylactic antibiotics in hip fractures. A double-blind, prospective study. , 1980, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[151]  J. A. Andersen,et al.  Penicillin prophylaxis in complicated wounds of hands and feet: a randomized, double-blind trial. , 1996, Injury.

[152]  R. Haley,et al.  The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. , 1985, American journal of epidemiology.

[153]  J. Boyce,et al.  Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital after exposure to a health care worker with chronic sinusitis. , 1993, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[154]  P. Durdey,et al.  Assessment of Sutures for Use in Colonic Surgery: An Experimental Study , 1984, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[155]  B. Nobles,et al.  Single-dose antimicrobial prophylaxis at abdominal hysterectomy. Cefamandole vs. cefotaxime. , 1988, Journal of reproductive medicine.

[156]  T. Perl,et al.  New Approaches to Reduce Staphylococcus Aureus Nosocomial Infection Rates: Treating S. Aureus Nasal Carriage , 1998, The Annals of pharmacotherapy.

[157]  J. Müller,et al.  PREOPERATIVE PARENTERAL FEEDING IN PATIENTS WITH GASTROINTESTINAL CARCINOMA , 1982, The Lancet.

[158]  M. Modan,et al.  The Israeli Study of Surgical Infections (ISSI): I. Methods for Developing a Standardized Surveillance System for a Multicenter Study of Surgical Infections , 1988, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[159]  A. Antoniadou,et al.  Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Fungal Infections in Surgery , 1996, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[160]  R. F. Morgan,et al.  Bacteriologic evaluation of electric clippers for surgical hair removal. , 1984, American journal of surgery.

[161]  J. Fairclough,et al.  Prophylactic cefamandole in orthopaedic surgery. , 1985, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[162]  H. Sonntag,et al.  Evaluation of the efficacy of surgical hand disinfection following a reduced application time of 3 instead of 5 min. , 1992, The Journal of hospital infection.

[163]  E. Rosato,et al.  Enteral nutrition with supplemental arginine, RNA, and omega-3 fatty acids in patients after operation: immunologic, metabolic, and clinical outcome. , 1992, Surgery.

[164]  N. Mcswain,et al.  Prospective alterations in therapy for penetrating abdominal trauma. , 1993, Archives of surgery.

[165]  A. M. Peacock,et al.  Surgical glove perforation , 1988, The British journal of surgery.

[166]  J. V. van Dellen,et al.  A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of perioperative prophylactic antibiotics for elective neurosurgery. , 1988, Journal of neurosurgery.

[167]  P. Gross,et al.  Surveillance for postoperative wound infections: practical aspects. , 1978, The American surgeon.

[168]  T. Horan,et al.  Definitions of key terms used in the NNIS System. , 1997, American journal of infection control.

[169]  D. Zoutman,et al.  Surgical wound infections occurring in day surgery patients. , 1990, American journal of infection control.

[170]  D. Schaberg.  Resistant gram-positive organisms. , 1994, Annals of emergency medicine.

[171]  W A Rutala,et al.  APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants. , 1996, American journal of infection control.

[172]  R. Platt,et al.  Recurrent group A streptococcal carriage in a health care worker associated with widely separated nosocomial outbreaks. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[173]  A. M. Wiley,et al.  The efficacy of standard surgical face masks: an investigation using "tracer particles". , 1980, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[174]  J. Bohnen,et al.  Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgical wounds. Guidelines for clinical care. , 1993, Archives of surgery.

[175]  D. Leigh,et al.  Total body bathing with 'Hibiscrub' (chlorhexidine) in surgical patients: a controlled trial. , 1983, The Journal of hospital infection.

[176]  N Orr,et al.  Is a mask necessary in the operating theatre? , 1982, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[177]  J. Rissing,et al.  Prophylactic Antibiotics in Colon Surgery: Cephaloridine v Erythromycin and Neomycin , 1983 .

[178]  R. Gaynes,et al.  Major trends in the microbial etiology of nosocomial infection. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[179]  K. Scher,et al.  Infectivity of vascular sutures. , 1985, The American surgeon.

[180]  D. Bandyk,et al.  The microbiology of explanted vascular prostheses. , 1987, Surgery.

[181]  R. Wenzel,et al.  Hospital-acquired infections. I. Surveillance in a university hospital. , 1976, American journal of epidemiology.

[182]  F. Hayden,et al.  Adenovirus type 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in an eye clinic: risk factors and control. , 1993, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[183]  R. Haley,et al.  Factors which influence the risk of wound infection in trauma patients. , 1987, The Journal of trauma.

[184]  Garner Js,et al.  CDC Guideline for Handwashing and Hospital Environmental Control, 1985 , 1986, Infection Control.

[185]  S. Deitchman,et al.  Guideline for Infection Control in Healthcare Personnel, 1998 , 1998, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[186]  J. Rissing,et al.  Prophylactic antibiotics in colon surgery. , 1983, Archives of surgery.

[187]  R. James,et al.  Induction of staphylococcal infections in mice with small inocula introduced on sutures. , 1961, British journal of experimental pathology.

[188]  O M Lidwell,et al.  Effect of ultraclean air in operating rooms on deep sepsis in the joint after total hip or knee replacement: a randomised study. , 1982, British medical journal.

[189]  R. Platt,et al.  Automated postdischarge surveillance for postpartum and neonatal nosocomial infections. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[190]  J. Johnson,et al.  The infected wound and its management. , 1995, Otolaryngologic clinics of North America.

[191]  M. Blajchman.  Allogeneic blood transfusions, immunomodulation, and postoperative bacterial infection: Do we have the answers yet? , 1997, Transfusion.

[192]  N. Christou,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgery in morbidly obese patients. , 1989, Surgery.

[193]  R. Nichols,et al.  Barrier efficiency of surgical gowns. Are we really protected from our patients' pathogens? , 1991, Archives of surgery.

[194]  O. Jonasson,et al.  Single dose cephalosporin prophylaxis in high-risk patients undergoing surgical treatment of the biliary tract. , 1992, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[195]  E. Rosato,et al.  Implications of malnutrition in the surgical patient. , 1979, Archives of surgery.

[196]  L. Thuler,et al.  Risk factors for infectious complications after abdominal surgery for malignant disease. , 1996, American journal of infection control.

[197]  B. Polk,et al.  The Lancet RANDOMISED CLINICAL TRIAL OF PERIOPERATIVE CEFAZOLIN IN PREVENTING INFECTION AFTER HYSTERECTOMY , 1980, The Lancet.

[198]  Vamvakas,et al.  Transfusion of white‐cell‐containing allogeneic blood components and postoperative wound infection: effect of confounding factors , 1998, Transfusion medicine.

[199]  H. Richet,et al.  Analysis of risk factors for surgical wound infections following vascular surgery. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[200]  S. Steigrad,et al.  Are preoperative antibiotics helpful in abdominal hysterectomy? , 1986, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[201]  M. Rotter,et al.  Surgical hand disinfection: effect of sequential use of two chlorhexidine preparations. , 1990, The Journal of hospital infection.

[202]  F. Edge.  The Cleansing of the Surgeon's Hands , 1900 .

[203]  P. Dineen.  The role of impervious drapes and gowns preventing surgical infection. , 1973, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research.

[204]  O. Lidwell.  Clean Air at Operation and Subsequent Sepsis in the Joint , 1986, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[205]  N. J. Ehrenkranz,et al.  Recorded Criteria as a “Gold Standard” for Sensitivity and Specificity Estimates of Surveillance of Nosocomial Infection: A Novel Method to Measure Job Performance , 1995, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[206]  G. Hill,et al.  Weight Loss with Physiologic Impairment: A Basic Indicator of Surgical Risk , 1988, Annals of surgery.

[207]  H. Kobayashi.  Evaluation of surgical scrubbing. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[208]  Proctor Ea.  The Operating Room , 1981, International anesthesiology clinics.

[209]  J. Mulherin,et al.  Cefoxitin versus Erythromycin, Neomycin, and Cefazolin in Colorectal Operations: Importance of the Duration of the Surgical Procedure , 1983, Annals of surgery.

[210]  R. Reiss,et al.  Systemic prophylactic antibiotics in elective biliary surgery. , 1984, Archives of surgery.

[211]  J. V. van Horn,et al.  Perioperative factors associated with septic arthritis after arthroplasty. Prospective multicenter study of 362 knee and 2,651 hip operations. , 1992, Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica.

[212]  G. Cioffi,et al.  Total joint replacement: a consideration for antimicrobial prophylaxis. , 1988, Oral surgery, oral medicine, and oral pathology.

[213]  D. Sessler,et al.  Mild perioperative hypothermia. , 1997, The New England journal of medicine.

[214]  A. Lacy,et al.  Postoperative complications of laparoscopic-assisted colectomy , 1997, Surgical Endoscopy.

[215]  M. Kravitz.  Outpatient wound care. , 1996, Critical Care Nursing Clinics of North America.

[216]  H. Leveen,et al.  Reduction of postoperative infection in elective colon surgery with preoperative administration of kanamycin and erythromycin. , 1979, Surgery.

[217]  M. Neil,et al.  Optimal timing of wound drain removal following total joint arthroplasty. , 1995, The Journal of arthroplasty.

[218]  J. Fischer,et al.  The effects of perioperative hyperalimentation on complications in patients with carcinoma and weight loss. , 1977, The Journal of surgical research.

[219]  P. Hoffman,et al.  Micro-organisms isolated from skin under wedding rings worn by hospital staff. , 1985, British medical journal.

[220]  W Whyte,et al.  The relative importance of routes and sources of wound contamination during general surgery. I. Non-airborne. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[221]  H. Given,et al.  Optimum duration of surgical scrub‐time , 1991, The British journal of surgery.

[222]  R. Heatley,et al.  Pre-operative intravenous feeding--a controlled trial. , 1979, Postgraduate medical journal.

[223]  W. Altemeier,et al.  Surgical considerations of endogenous infections--sources, types, and methods of control. , 1968, The Surgical clinics of North America.

[224]  M. Ritter,et al.  The antimicrobial effectiveness of operative-site preparative agents: a microbiological and clinical study. , 1980, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[225]  E. Lowbury,et al.  The effect of blood on disinfection of surgeons' hands , 1974, The British journal of surgery.

[226]  W. Blackwelder,et al.  Infections complicating low-risk cesarean sections in community hospitals: efficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis. , 1990, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[227]  S. Huchcroft,et al.  Perioperative cefazolin prophylaxis in hip fracture surgery. , 1990, Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie.

[228]  D. Maki,et al.  Comparative study of cefazolin, cefamandole, and vancomycin for surgical prophylaxis in cardiac and vascular operations. A double-blind randomized trial. , 1992, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[229]  R. Sherertz,et al.  A Cloud Adult: The Staphylococcus aureus-Virus Interaction Revisited , 1996, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[230]  J. Dipiro,et al.  Single dose systemic antibiotic prophylaxis of surgical wound infections. , 1986, American journal of surgery.

[231]  P. Nyström,et al.  Incisional infection after colorectal surgery in obese patients. , 1987, Acta chirurgica Scandinavica.

[232]  W. Ledger,et al.  Comparison of cefotetan and cefoxitin prophylaxis for abdominal and vaginal hysterectomy. , 1988, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[233]  S. Karran,et al.  A randomized prospective study to compare ceftizoxime with cephradine as single dose prophylaxis in elective cholecystectomy. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[234]  W. Donaldson,et al.  Percutaneous Biopsy in the Anterior Thoracic Spine , 1993, Spine.

[235]  E. Lowbury,et al.  Use of 4 per cent chlorhexidine detergent solution (Hibiscrub) and other methods of skin disinfection. , 1973, British medical journal.

[236]  K. Banfield,et al.  Protective over-shoes are unnecessary in a day surgery unit. , 1994, The Journal of hospital infection.

[237]  H. Richet,et al.  A cluster of Rhodococcus (Gordona) Bronchialis sternal-wound infections after coronary-artery bypass surgery. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[238]  J. Johnson,et al.  Cefazolin vs moxalactam? A double-blind randomized trial of cephalosporins in head and neck surgery. , 1986, Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery.

[239]  D. Cardo,et al.  Validation of Surgical Wound Surveillance , 1993, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[240]  J. Kinney,et al.  The Response to TPN: A Form of Nutritional Assessment , 1983, Annals of surgery.

[241]  P. Pisters,et al.  A Prospective Randomized Trial of Total Parenteral Nutrition After Major Pancreatic Resection for Malignancy , 1994, Annals of surgery.

[242]  J. Bruun.  Post-operative wound infection. Predisposing factors and the effect of a reduction in the dissemination of staphylococci. , 1970, Acta medica Scandinavica. Supplementum.

[243]  J. Piatt,et al.  Hair and neurosurgery. , 1994, Neurosurgery.

[244]  M. Favero,et al.  Is eliminating flash sterilization practical? , 1993, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[245]  C. McArdle,et al.  Oral ciprofloxacin as prophylaxis in gastroduodenal surgery. , 1995, The Journal of hospital infection.

[246]  D. Kasper.  Bacterial capsule--old dogmas and new tricks. , 1986, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[247]  Noble Wc.  The production of subcutaneous staphylococcal skin lesions in mice. , 1965 .

[248]  W. Rutala,et al.  Evaluation of a rapid readout biological indicator for flash sterilization with three biological indicators and three chemical indicators. , 1994, AORN journal.

[249]  M. Morgan,et al.  Inpatient and post-discharge wound infections in general surgery. , 1995, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[250]  L. Nicolle,et al.  The Impact of Postdischarge Infection on Surgical Wound Infection Rates , 1987, Infection Control.

[251]  F. Manian,et al.  Comparison of patient telephone survey with traditional surveillance and monthly physician questionnaires in monitoring surgical wound infections. , 1993, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[252]  C. Herfarth,et al.  The predictive role of delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity testing in postoperative complications. , 1986, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[253]  H. Maibach,et al.  Comparative antibacterial efficacy of a 2-minute surgical scrub with chlorhexidine gluconate, povidone-iodine, and chloroxylenol sponge-brushes. , 1988, American journal of infection control.

[254]  L. Lidgren.  Postoperative orthopaedic infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. , 1973, Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica.

[255]  J. Johnson,et al.  An assessment of the need for gram-negative bacterial coverage in antibiotic prophylaxis for oncological head and neck surgery. , 1987, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[256]  G. Laurell,et al.  The relative importance of the routes and sources of wound contamination during general surgery. II. Airborne. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[257]  H. Humphreys,et al.  Theatre over-shoes do not reduce operating theatre floor bacterial counts. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[258]  H. Ellis,et al.  Abdominal wound closure--a comparison of monofilament nylon and polyglycolic acid. , 1981, Surgery.

[259]  D. McArthur,et al.  Multiple Organ Failure , 2000, Springer New York.

[260]  J. Treston-Aurand,et al.  A comparison of two skin preps used in cardiac surgical procedures. , 1995, AORN journal.

[261]  G. Ayliffe,et al.  Preoperative Disinfection of Surgeons' Hands: Use of Alcoholic Solutions and Effects of Gloves on Skin Flora , 1974, British medical journal.

[262]  W. Rutala,et al.  Comparison of a Rapid Readout Biological Indicator for Steam Sterilization With Four Conventional Biological Indicators and Five Chemical Indicators , 1996, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[263]  B. B. Roe,et al.  Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Drainage, Technical and Physiological Considerations , 1964 .

[264]  A. Hecht,et al.  Creating greater efficiency in ambulatory surgery. , 1995, Journal of clinical anesthesia.

[265]  J. Mylotte,et al.  Surveillance of Surgical Wound Infections Following Open Heart Surgery , 1991, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[266]  C. Swanson,et al.  Factors Influencing Wound Healing After Surgery for Metastatic Disease of the Spine , 1998, Spine.

[267]  M. Mack,et al.  Risk factors for operative mortality and sternal wound infection in bilateral internal mammary artery grafting. , 1994, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[268]  E. Bryce,et al.  Post-discharge surveillance of surgical wound infections. , 1996, Canadian Journal of Infection Control.

[269]  J. Allen,et al.  Use of a Prophylactic Antibiotic in Elective Major Gynologic Operations , 1972, Obstetrics and gynecology.

[270]  M. Robson,et al.  Evolution of quantitative bacteriology in wound management. , 1976, American journal of surgery.

[271]  G. Ayliffe.  Surgical Scrub and Skin Disinfection , 1984, Infection Control.

[272]  R. Croton,et al.  Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus; the role of antisepsis in the control of an outbreak. , 1987, The Journal of hospital infection.

[273]  R Platt,et al.  Electronic Surveillance of Antibiotic Exposure and Coded Discharge Diagnoses as Indicators of Postoperative Infection and Other Quality Assurance Measures , 1993, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[274]  H. Laufman.  Postoperative wound infections and surgical face masks: a controlled study. , 1992, World journal of surgery.

[275]  Julio Cesar Sampaio P. Leite,et al.  Value of nutritional parameters in the prediction of postoperative complications in elective gastrointestinal surgery , 1987, The British journal of surgery.

[276]  R. Guidoin,et al.  Experimental colonization of an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene vascular graft with : A quantitative and morphologic study , 1987 .

[277]  D. Durzinsky,et al.  A late sternal wound infection caused by hematogenous spread of bacteria. , 1995, Chest.

[278]  E. Lowbury,et al.  Use of 4% Chlorhexidine Detergent Solution (Hibiscrub) and Other Methods of Skin Disinfection , 1973 .

[279]  R. Walesby,et al.  Median sternotomy wound dehiscence: a retrospective case control study of risk factors and outcome. , 1993, Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.

[280]  E. Moore,et al.  Benefits of immediate jejunostomy feeding after major abdominal trauma--a prospective, randomized study. , 1986, The Journal of trauma.

[281]  P. Cruse.  Wound infection surveillance. , 1981, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[282]  A. Lortat-Jacob.  [Antibiotic prophylaxis in orthopedic surgery]. , 1994, Annales francaises d'anesthesie et de reanimation.

[283]  T. Bates,et al.  Topical ampicillin in the prevention of wound infection after appendicectomy , 1974, The British journal of surgery.

[284]  J. Kirkpatrick,et al.  Contaminated wounds: the effect of initial management on outcome. , 1995, The American surgeon.

[285]  C. Balch,et al.  Operative morbidity and risk factor assessment in melanoma patients undergoing inguinal lymph node dissection. , 1992, American journal of surgery.

[286]  M. Carrieri,et al.  Risk factors for surgical wound infections in clean surgery: a multicenter study. Italian PRINOS Study Group. , 1996, Annali italiani di chirurgia.

[287]  R. Demling,et al.  Multiple-organ dysfunction in the surgical patient: pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. , 1993, Current problems in surgery.

[288]  R. Nichols,et al.  Prophylaxis in bowel surgery. , 1995, Current clinical topics in infectious diseases.

[289]  D. Gauthier,et al.  Clean vs sterile surgical skin preparation kits. Cost, safety, effectiveness. , 1993, AORN Journal.

[290]  P. Cruse,et al.  The epidemiology of wound infection. A 10-year prospective study of 62,939 wounds. , 1980, The Surgical clinics of North America.

[291]  C. S. Yu,et al.  Perioperative Nutrition and Postoperative Complications in Patients Undergoing Spinal Surgery , 1996, Spine.

[292]  S. Smyth,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated for chest stab wounds requiring closed tube thoracostomy , 1993, The British journal of surgery.

[293]  E. Dellinger.  Surgical infections and choice of antibiotics , 1997 .

[294]  J. Meakins,et al.  Assessing operative site infection in surgical patients. , 1987, Archives of surgery.

[295]  G. Ayliffe,et al.  Risk of airborne transmission in an operating theatre containing four ultraclean air units. , 1995, The Journal of hospital infection.

[296]  Prophylactic cefamandole in orthopaedic surgery. , 1984, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[297]  B. Farber,et al.  Skin and mucous membrane contacts with blood during surgical procedures: risk and prevention. , 1995, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[298]  C. O. Solberg.  Systemic antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery. , 1980, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[299]  T. Bucknall.  Factors influencing wound complications: a clinical and experimental study. , 1983, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[300]  J. Pottinger,et al.  Bacterial carriage by artificial versus natural nails. , 1989, American journal of infection control.

[301]  J. Drake,et al.  Efficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis in placement of cerebrospinal fluid shunts: meta-analysis. , 1993, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[302]  D. Paulson.  Efficacy evaluation of a 4% chlorhexidine gluconate as a full-body shower wash. , 1993, American journal of infection control.

[303]  R. Triplett,et al.  The relationship of cigarette smoking to impaired intraoral wound healing: a review of evidence and implications for patient care. , 1992, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[304]  C. Doig,et al.  Wound infection in a children's hospital , 1976, The British journal of surgery.

[305]  E. Salloum,et al.  Serious wound infections after minimally invasive coronary bypass procedures. , 1998, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[306]  S. Mehtar,et al.  A multi-centre evaluation of two chlorhexidine-containing formulations for surgical hand disinfection. , 1990, Journal of Hospital Infection.

[307]  T. Perl,et al.  Basics of Surgical-Site Infection Surveillance , 1997, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[308]  T. Colton,et al.  A double-blind clinical trial of prophylactic antibiotics in hip fractures. , 1973, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[309]  D. Vesley,et al.  Evaluation of a rapid readout biological indicator for 121 degrees C gravity and 132 degrees C vacuum-assisted steam sterilization cycles. , 1995, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[310]  J. Conn,et al.  Protection of the surgical wound with a new plastic film. , 1960, JAMA.

[311]  M. Meguid,et al.  A critical appraisal of the usefulness of perioperative nutritional support. , 1992, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[312]  J. Hiatt,et al.  A randomized, prospective study of perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis for vascular access surgery. , 1985, The Journal of cardiovascular surgery.

[313]  J. Boyce.  Should we vigorously try to contain and control methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus? , 1991 .

[314]  J. Faoagali,et al.  Comparison of the immediate, residual, and cumulative antibacterial effects of Novaderm R,* Novascrub R,* Betadine Surgical Scrub, Hibiclens, and liquid soap. , 1995, American journal of infection control.

[315]  M. Castle.  Hospital infection control: Principles and practice , 1982 .

[316]  P. Cruse.  Wound infections epidemiology and clinical characteristics , 1988 .

[317]  E. Larson,et al.  Draft APIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings , 1994 .

[318]  R. Simmons,et al.  The biology and practice of surgical drains. Part II. , 1992, Current problems in surgery.

[319]  O. Isom,et al.  Effects of shaving methods and intraoperative irrigation on suppurative mediastinitis after bypass operations. , 1992, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[320]  C. Azen,et al.  Comparative efficacy and safety of cefmetazole or cefoxitin in the prevention of postoperative infection following vaginal and abdominal hysterectomy. , 1989, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[321]  H. Ellis,et al.  The choice of a suture to close abdominal incisions. , 1983, European surgical research. Europaische chirurgische Forschung. Recherches chirurgicales europeennes.

[322]  L. Hiratzka,et al.  Sternotomy infection: poor prediction by acute phase response and delayed hypersensitivity. , 1990, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[323]  Ha'eri Gb,et al.  Routes of Infection: A Study of Using “tracer Particles” in the Orthopedic Operating Room , 1979 .

[324]  E. Larson,et al.  APIC guideline for handwashing and hand antisepsis in health care settings. , 1995, American journal of infection control.

[325]  M. Rotter.  Hygienic Hand Disinfection , 1984, Infection Control.

[326]  M. Blaser,et al.  Surveillance for the detection of nosocomial infections and the potential for nosocomial outbreaks. I. Microbiology culture surveillance is an effective method of detecting nosocomial infection. , 1984, American journal of infection control.

[327]  L. Gentry,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis in open-heart surgery: a comparison of cefamandole, cefuroxime, and cefazolin. , 1988, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[328]  B. Walters,et al.  Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunts , 1994 .

[329]  L. Lidgren,et al.  Prophylactic antibiotics against early and late deep infections after total hip replacements. , 1977, Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica.

[330]  L. Elveback,et al.  Effect of Preoperative Antibiotic Regimen on Development of Infection after Intestinal Surgery: Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind Study , 1974, Annals of surgery.

[331]  B. Crouch,et al.  Operating Room. , 1971, Hospital topics.

[332]  A. Sitges-Serra,et al.  Surgical Wound Infections: Prospective Study of 4,468 Clean Wounds , 1987, Infection Control.

[333]  M. O'Connor,et al.  Surgical Wound Infections: A 5‐Year Prospective Study of 20,193 Wounds at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center , 1984, Annals of surgery.

[334]  K. Greene,et al.  Preoperative nutritional status of total joint patients , 1991 .

[335]  E. Moore,et al.  Early Enteral Feeding, Compared With Parenteral, Reduces Postoperative Septic Complications The Results of a Meta‐Analysis , 1992, Annals of surgery.

[336]  R. Guidoin,et al.  Experimental colonization of an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene vascular graft with Staphylococcus aureus: a quantitative and morphologic study. , 1987, Journal of vascular surgery.

[337]  C. Bartzokas,et al.  Control and eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a surgical unit. , 1984, The New England journal of medicine.

[338]  T. K. Hunt,et al.  Oxygen as an isolated variable influences resistance to infection. , 1988, Annals of surgery.

[339]  C. Howe.  Experimental wound sepsis from transient Escherichia coli bacteremia. , 1969, Surgery.

[340]  A. M. Wiley,et al.  Routes of infection. A study of using "tracer particles" in the orthopedic operating room. , 1979, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[341]  R. Lammers,et al.  Inability of patients to self-diagnose wound infections. , 1991, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[342]  L. Traverso,et al.  Wound complications after modified radical mastectomy compared with tylectomy with axillary lymph node dissection. , 1991, American journal of surgery.

[343]  S. Trippel.  Antibiotic-impregnated cement in total joint arthroplasty. , 1986, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[344]  S. Isaacs,et al.  Prospective, randomized study comparing amoxycillin-clavulanic acid and cefamandole for the prevention of wound infection in high-risk patients undergoing elective biliary surgery. , 1992, The Journal of hospital infection.

[345]  R. Smith.  What is the purpose of the scrub suit? , 1980, AORN Journal.

[346]  C. Herfarth,et al.  Risks of intestinal anastomoses in Crohn's disease. , 1991, Annals of surgery.

[347]  S. Lookinland,et al.  Effect of surgical hand scrub time on subsequent bacterial growth. , 1997, AORN journal.

[348]  B. Johnston,et al.  Postdischarge surgical site infection surveillance. , 1995, The Canadian journal of infection control : the official journal of the Community & Hospital Infection Control Association-Canada = Revue canadienne de prevention des infections.

[349]  R. Wenzel,et al.  Prevention and Control of Nosocomial Infections , 1997 .

[350]  E. Larson,et al.  Effects of nail polish on microbial growth of fingernails. Dispelling sacred cows. , 1993, AORN journal.

[351]  S. Dippe,et al.  Postoperative wound infections detected during hospitalization and after discharge in a community hospital. , 1982, American journal of infection control.

[352]  M. Malangoni,et al.  Effectiveness of a surgical wound surveillance program. , 1983, Archives of surgery.

[353]  J. Kinney,et al.  The influence of preoperative total parenteral nutrition upon morbidity and mortality. , 1986, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[354]  P. Penkoske,et al.  Antimicrobial prophylaxis for open heart operations. , 1990, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[355]  W C Beck,et al.  The surgical mask: another 'sacred cow'? , 1992, AORN journal.

[356]  R. Shirahatti,et al.  Effect of pre-operative skin preparation on post-operative wound infection. , 1993, Journal of postgraduate medicine.

[357]  R. C. Smith,et al.  Prediction of postoperative complications by clinical and nutritional assessment. , 1986, The Australian and New Zealand journal of surgery.

[358]  M. Wong.  Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis , 1986 .

[359]  J. T. Lee.  Operative complications and quality improvement. , 1996, American journal of surgery.

[360]  C. Mountain,et al.  Parenteral Nutrition in Esophageal Cancer Patients , 1982, Annals of surgery.

[361]  J. T. Lee.  Making surgical care better: hard work, small gains. , 1997, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[362]  B. Reynolds,et al.  Wound infections after preoperative depilatory versus razor preparation. , 1971, American journal of surgery.

[363]  K Isaaz,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis for permanent pacemaker implantation: a meta-analysis. , 1998, Circulation.

[364]  E. Rosato,et al.  Enteral Nutrition During Multimodality Therapy in Upper Gastrointestinal Cancer Patients , 1995, Annals of surgery.

[365]  D. Maki,et al.  Comparative study of cefazolin, cefoxitin, and ceftizoxime for surgical prophylaxis in colo-rectal surgery. , 1982, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[366]  J. Murray,et al.  Addition of Parenteral Cefoxitin to Regimen of Oral Antibiotics for Elective Colorectal Operations , 1990, Annals of surgery.

[367]  E. A. Mccullough,et al.  Methods for determining the barrier efficacy of surgical gowns. , 1993, American journal of infection control.

[368]  R. R. Rao,et al.  Enteral hyperalimentation in malnourished surgical patients. , 1984, The Indian journal of medical research.

[369]  G. Mehta,et al.  Computer assisted analysis of wound infection in neurosurgery. , 1988, The Journal of hospital infection.

[370]  F. Schildberg,et al.  Beneficial effect of autologous blood transfusion on infectious complications after colorectal cancer surgery , 1993, The Lancet.

[371]  E. Lingaas,et al.  A Prospective, Randomized Surveillance Study of Postoperative Wound Infections after Plastic Surgery: A Study of Incidence and Surveillance Methods , 1995, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[372]  U. Joosten,et al.  Early postoperative enteral immunonutrition: clinical outcome and cost-comparison analysis in surgical patients. , 1997, Critical care medicine.

[373]  L. Anderson,et al.  A large outbreak of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis: problems in controlling nosocomial spread. , 1989, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[374]  J. Wade,et al.  The evaluation of residual antimicrobial activity on hands and its clinical relevance. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[375]  L. Ellis,et al.  Perioperative nutritional support. , 1991, The Surgical clinics of North America.

[376]  R. Garibaldi.  Prevention of intraoperative wound contamination with chlorhexidine shower and scrub. , 1988, The Journal of hospital infection.

[377]  R. Platt,et al.  Surgical site infections occurring after hospital discharge. , 1996, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[378]  C. Mailhot,et al.  Covergowns and the control of operating room contamination. , 1986, Nursing research.

[379]  T. K. Hunt,et al.  Direct measurement of wound and tissue oxygen tension in postoperative patients. , 1983, Annals of surgery.

[380]  W. Noble.  The production of subcutaneous staphylococcal skin lesions in mice. , 1965, British journal of experimental pathology.

[381]  A. Starr,et al.  Prosthetic Valvular Endocarditis: A 12‐Year Review , 1973, Circulation.

[382]  B. A. Albers,et al.  [Cost effectiveness of preventive antibiotic administration for lowering risk of infection by 0.25%]. , 1994, Der Unfallchirurg.

[383]  J. Miller,et al.  Gram-negative bacteremia in open-heart-surgery patients traced to probable tap-water contamination of pressure-monitoring equipment. , 1996, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[384]  Kutarski Pw,et al.  To dry or not to dry? An assessment of the possible degradation in efficiency of preoperative skin preparation caused by wiping skin dry. , 1993 .

[385]  P J Cruse,et al.  A five-year prospective study of 23,649 surgical wounds. , 1973, Archives of surgery.

[386]  D. Richman,et al.  Scarlet fever and group A streptococcal surgical wound infection traced to an anal carrier. , 1977, The Journal of pediatrics.

[387]  N. Qvist,et al.  Randomised comparison of leucocyte-depleted versus buffy-coat-poor blood transfusion and complications after colorectal surgery , 1996, The Lancet.

[388]  M. Djindjian,et al.  Antibiotic prophylaxis during prolonged clean neurosurgery. Results of a randomized double-blind study using oxacillin. , 1990, Journal of neurosurgery.

[389]  N. J. Ehrenkranz,et al.  Antimicrobial Prophylaxis in Surgery: Mechanisms, Misconceptions, and Mischief , 1993, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[390]  D. Passaro,et al.  Postoperative Serratia marcescens wound infections traced to an out-of-hospital source. , 1997, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[391]  Bucknall Te.  Factors influencing wound complications: a clinical and experimental study. , 1983 .

[392]  G. J. Taylor,et al.  Wound disinfection with ultraviolet radiation. , 1995, The Journal of hospital infection.

[393]  R. Simmons,et al.  The biology and practice of surgical drains. Part 1. , 1992, Current problems in surgery.

[394]  J. Peyton,et al.  The natural history of bacterial biofilm graft infection. , 1994, The Journal of surgical research.

[395]  O M Lidwell,et al.  Ultraclean air and antibiotics for prevention of postoperative infection. A multicenter study of 8,052 joint replacement operations. , 1987, Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica.

[396]  D. Soper.  Infections following cesarean section , 1993, Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology.

[397]  K. Chiu,et al.  Plastic adhesive drapes and wound infection after hip fracture surgery. , 1993, The Australian and New Zealand journal of surgery.

[398]  E. Mortimer,et al.  Importance of the carrier state as a source of Staphylococcus aureus in wound sepsis , 1969, Journal of Hygiene.

[399]  E. Flanders,et al.  Ambulatory surgery postoperative wound surveillance. , 1990, American journal of infection control.

[400]  P. Nandi,et al.  Surgical wound infection. , 1999, Hong Kong medical journal = Xianggang yi xue za zhi.

[401]  W. Blakemore,et al.  Analysis and Significance of Nosocomial Infection Rates , 1974, Annals of surgery.

[402]  T. Schmalzried,et al.  Etiology of deep sepsis in total hip arthroplasty. The significance of hematogenous and recurrent infections. , 1992, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research.

[403]  J. S. Clarke,et al.  Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on Bowel Preparation for Elective Colorectal Operations: Impact of Oral Antibiotic Regimen on Colonic Flora, Wound Irrigation Cultures and Bacteriology of Septic Complications , 1978, Annals of surgery.

[404]  S. Paul,et al.  Postoperative Group A β-Hemolytic Streptococcus Outbreak With the Pathogen Traced to a Member of a Healthcare Worker's Household , 1990, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[405]  Sd. Elek.  The virulence of staph pyogenes for man : a study of wound infection , 1957 .

[406]  H. Thaler,et al.  Direct observations of surgical wound infections at a comprehensive cancer center. , 1995, Archives of surgery.

[407]  B. Simmons.  Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Wound Infections , 1982, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[408]  R. Gamelli,et al.  Decreasing the incidence of surgical wound infections. Validation of a surveillance-notification program. , 1986, Archives of Surgery.

[409]  J. Garner.  CDC Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Wound Infections, 1985 , 1986, Infection Control.

[410]  Perioperative normothermia to reduce the incidence of surgical-wound infection and shorten hospitalization. Study of Wound Infection and Temperature Group. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[411]  J. M. Garvey,et al.  Surveillance for Postoperative Infections in Outpatient Gynecologic Surgery , 1986, Infection Control.

[412]  J. Feeley,et al.  Wound infections due to group A streptococcus traced to a vaginal carrier. , 1978, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[413]  J. Hunter,et al.  Late Clostridium perfringens breast implant infection after dental treatment. , 1996, Annals of plastic surgery.

[414]  R. Lewis,et al.  Biliary bacteria, antibiotic use, and wound infection in surgery of the gallbladder and common bile duct. , 1987, Archives of surgery.

[415]  J. Thiele,et al.  Handwashing: ring-wearing and number of microorganisms. , 1985, Nursing research.

[416]  D. Pohl,et al.  Laparoscopic versus open appendectomy: a metaanalysis. , 1998, Journal of the American College of Surgeons.

[417]  A. Gardner,et al.  A placebo-controlled trial of the effect of two preoperative baths or showers with chlorhexidine detergent on postoperative wound infection rates. , 1987, The Journal of hospital infection.

[418]  R. Nichols.  Surgical wound infection. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[419]  T. Julian,et al.  Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. , 1981, The Journal of surgical research.

[420]  M. Roy.  Surgical-Site Infections After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery: Discriminating Site-Specific Risk Factors to Improve Prevention Efforts , 1998, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[421]  T. G. Tunevall,et al.  Influence of wearing masks on the density of airborne bacteria in the vicinity of the surgical wound. , 1992, The European journal of surgery = Acta chirurgica.

[422]  R. Lewis,et al.  Cefamandole in gastroduodenal surgery: a controlled, prospective, randomized, double-blind study. , 1982, Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie.

[423]  T. B. Lee,et al.  Surveillance in acute care and nonacute care settings: current issues and concepts. , 1997, American journal of infection control.

[424]  R. Garibaldi,et al.  Comparison of nonwoven and woven gown and drape fabric to prevent intraoperative wound contamination and postoperative infection. , 1986, American journal of surgery.

[425]  S. D. Elek,et al.  The virulence of Staphylococcus pyogenes for man; a study of the problems of wound infection. , 1957, British journal of experimental pathology.

[426]  R. Brown,et al.  Surgical wound infections documented after hospital discharge. , 1987, American journal of infection control.

[427]  Z. Memish,et al.  Underestimation of surgical site infection rates in obstetrics and gynecology. , 1995, American journal of infection control.

[428]  J. Garner.  The CDC Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. , 1993, American journal of infection control.

[429]  G. Angelini,et al.  Median sternotomy wound dehiscence: a retrospective case control study of risk factors and outcome. , 1992, Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.

[430]  D. Kernodle,et al.  Efficacy of cefazolin, cefamandole, and gentamicin as prophylactic agents in cardiac surgery. Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial in 1030 patients. , 1987, Annals of surgery.

[431]  J. S. Yao,et al.  Correlation of immune and nutritional status with wound complications in patients undergoing vascular operations. , 1983, Surgery.

[432]  F. Lacaine,et al.  Prophylactic antibiotherapy in abdominal surgery. First- vs third-generation cephalosporins. , 1989, Archives of Surgery.

[433]  J. S. Goodman,et al.  Hospital outbreak of infections with group a streptococci traced to an asymptomatic anal carrier. , 1969, The New England journal of medicine.

[434]  Caryl Collier,et al.  Community Hospital Surgeon-Specific Infection Rates , 1987, Infection Control.

[435]  G. Ayliffe,et al.  A comparison of pre-operative bathing with chlorhexidine-detergent and non-medicated soap in the prevention of wound infection. , 1983, The Journal of hospital infection.

[436]  D. Burwen,et al.  Respirators, Recommendations, and Regulations: The Controversy Surrounding Protection of Health Care Workers from Tuberculosis , 1995, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[437]  J. Weigelt,et al.  Effect of remote infections on clean wound infection rates. , 1986, American journal of infection control.

[438]  A. L. Harding,et al.  The infector on the surgical team. , 1966, Clinical neurosurgery.

[439]  D. Kernodle,et al.  Influence of preoperative showers on staphylococcal skin colonization: a comparative trial of antiseptic skin cleansers. , 1988, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[440]  W. Jarvis.  Epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections, with emphasis on Candida species. , 1995, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[441]  G. Taylor,et al.  Effect of surgeon's diagnosis on surgical wound infection rates. , 1990, American journal of infection control.

[442]  G. Ayliffe,et al.  A test procedure for evaluating surgical hand disinfection. , 1991, The Journal of hospital infection.

[443]  J. V. Petersen,et al.  Estimated costs of postoperative wound infections , 1994, Epidemiology and Infection.

[444]  L. Baddour,et al.  Phenotypic variation of Staphylococcus epidermidis slime production in vitro and in vivo , 1987, Infection and immunity.

[445]  C. Buchan.  Postsurgical infections associated with an extrinsically contaminated intravenous anesthetic agent--California, Illinois, Maine, and Michigan, 1990. , 1990, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[446]  Favero.  Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital , 1991 .

[447]  A. F. Peterson,et al.  Comparative evaluation of surgical scrub preparations. , 1978, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[448]  J. Bendix,et al.  Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Acute Nonperforated Appendicitis: The Danish Multicenter Study Group 111 , 1989, Annals of surgery.

[449]  R L Menlove,et al.  The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical-wound infection. , 1992, The New England journal of medicine.

[450]  C Friedman,et al.  Comparison of case-finding methodologies for endometritis after cesarean section. , 1995, American journal of infection control.

[451]  R. Sherertz,et al.  Outbreak of Staphylococcal Infection in Two Hospital Nurseries Traced to a Single Nasal Carrier , 1986, Infection Control.

[452]  E. Larson.  Guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. , 1988, American journal of infection control.

[453]  M. Slaughter,et al.  A fifteen-year wound surveillance study after coronary artery bypass. , 1993, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[454]  R. L. Fulton,et al.  Multiple system organ failure. The role of uncontrolled infection. , 1980, Archives of surgery.

[455]  D. Vesley,et al.  Evaluation of a Rapid Readout Biological Indicator for 121°C Gravity and 132°C Vacuum-Assisted Steam Sterilization Cycles , 1995, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[456]  S. Deitchman,et al.  Guideline for infection control in health care personnel , 1998 , 1997 .

[457]  R. Pearson,et al.  Clostridium perfringens wound infection associated with elastic bandages. , 1980, JAMA.

[458]  J. Harkness,et al.  Successful control of endemic MRSA in a cardiothoracic surgical unit , 1990, The Medical journal of Australia.

[459]  Lee Jt.  Wound infection surveillance. , 1992 .

[460]  D. Mcquarrie,et al.  Preoperative hair removal with clippers does not increase infection rate in clean surgical wounds. , 1986, Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics.

[461]  W J Martone,et al.  Surgical wound infection rates by wound class, operative procedure, and patient risk index. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. , 1991, The American journal of medicine.

[462]  E. Ferraz,et al.  Postdischarge surveillance for nosocomial wound infection: does judicious monitoring find cases? , 1995, American journal of infection control.

[463]  K. Lally,et al.  Pediatric wound infections: a prospective multicenter study. , 1998, Annals of surgery.

[464]  N. J. Ehrenkranz,et al.  An apparent excess of operative site infections: analyses to evaluate false-positive diagnoses. , 1995, Infection control and hospital epidemiology.

[465]  C. Hargiss,et al.  Postoperative wound infection surveillance by use of bacterial contamination categories. , 1985, American journal of infection control.

[466]  R. Nichols,et al.  Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis in high risk gastroduodenal operations. , 1982, American journal of surgery.

[467]  J. Mindel,et al.  Antimicrobial prophylaxis for ophthalmic surgery. , 1995, Survey of ophthalmology.

[468]  L. J. Short,et al.  Risk of occupational infection with blood-borne pathogens in operating and delivery room settings. , 1993, American journal of infection control.

[469]  P. Schlievert,et al.  Nosocomial transmission of a strain of Staphylococcus aureus causing toxic shock syndrome. , 1986, Annals of internal medicine.

[470]  H. Pitt,et al.  Prophylactic Antibiotics in Vascular Surgery: Topical, Systemic, or Both? , 1980, Annals of surgery.

[471]  R. Jones,et al.  Prophylaxis with cefamandole nafate in elective orthopedic surgery. , 1986, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[472]  J. Johnson,et al.  Efficacy of topical amoxicillin plus clavulanate/ticarcillin plus clavulanate and clindamycin in contaminated head and neck surgery: effect of antibiotic spectra and duration of therapy. , 1994, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[473]  P. Frileux,et al.  Surgical glove perforation , 1989, The British journal of surgery.

[474]  W. Rutala,et al.  Management of Healthcare Workers With Pharyngitis or Suspected Streptococcal Infections , 1996, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[475]  A. Askew.  A comparison of upper abdominal wound closure with monofilament nylon and polyglycolic acid. , 1985, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery.

[476]  P. Dottino,et al.  Evaluation of blunt suture needles in preventing percutaneous injuries among health-care workers during gynecologic surgical procedures--New York City, March 1993-June 1994. , 1997, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[477]  T. Errico,et al.  Late infection of spinal instrumentation by hematogenous seeding. , 1993, Spine.

[478]  J. Costerton,et al.  Bacterial adherence and glycocalyx formation in osteomyelitis experimentally induced with Staphylococcus aureus , 1984, Infection and immunity.

[479]  S. Loriaux,et al.  Prophylaxis in gynaecological surgery: a prospective randomized comparison between single dose prophylaxis with amoxycillin/clavulanate and the combination of cefuroxime and metronidazole. , 1989, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[480]  K. D. Allen,et al.  Clustering of group A streptococcal infections on a burns unit: important lessons in outbreak management. , 1993, The Journal of hospital infection.

[481]  Serena S. Hu,et al.  Nutritional Depletion in Staged Spinal Reconstructive Surgery: The Effect of Total Parenteral Nutrition , 1998, Spine.

[482]  H. Verbrugh,et al.  Reduction of Surgical-Site Infections in Cardiothoracic Surgery by Elimination of Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus , 1996, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.