Review article: Polymer-matrix Nanocomposites, Processing, Manufacturing, and Application: An Overview

This review is designed to be a comprehensive source for polymer nanocomposite research, including fundamental structure/property relationships, manufacturing techniques, and applications of polymer nanocomposite materials. In addition to presenting the scientific framework for the advances in polymer nanocomposite research, this review focuses on the scientific principles and mechanisms in relation to the methods of processing and manufacturing with a discussion on commercial applications and health/safety concerns (a critical issue for production and scale-up). Hence, this review offers a comprehensive discussion on technology, modeling, characterization, processing, manufacturing, applications, and health/safety concerns for polymer nanocomposites.

[1]  G. Belingardi,et al.  Characterization of polymeric structural foams under compressive impact loading by means of energy-absorption diagram , 2001 .

[2]  K. Lau.  Interfacial bonding characteristics of nanotube/polymer composites , 2003 .

[3]  F. Gao.  Clay/polymer composites: the story , 2004 .

[4]  M. Heintze,et al.  Characterization of the uppermost layer of plasma-treated carbon nanotubes , 2003 .

[5]  Gerhard Mueller,et al.  Penetration of Titanium Dioxide Microparticles in a Sunscreen Formulation into the Horny Layer and the Follicular Orifice , 1999, Skin Pharmacology and Physiology.

[6]  S. Bao,et al.  Curing behavior of epoxy resin/tung oil anhydride exfoliated nanocomposite by differential scanning calorimetry , 2004 .

[7]  Ben Wang,et al.  Processing and property investigation of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) buckypaper/epoxy resin matrix nanocomposites , 2004 .

[8]  Jin-chein Lin,et al.  Mechanical behavior of various nanoparticle filled composites at low-velocity impact , 2006 .

[9]  Donald R Paul,et al.  Rheological behavior of multiwalled carbon nanotube/polycarbonate composites , 2002 .

[10]  Yi Xiao-su,et al.  Study on intercalation and exfoliation behavior of organoclays in epoxy resin , 2001 .

[11]  J. Tour,et al.  Dispersion of Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes in Polystyrene , 2002 .

[12]  K. Kawamura,et al.  Molecular Simulation for Flexibility of a Single Clay Layer , 2001 .

[13]  Toshio Kurauchi,et al.  Mechanical properties of nylon 6-clay hybrid , 1993 .

[14]  M. Yumura,et al.  Polymer Composites of Carbon Nanotubes Aligned by a Magnetic Field , 2002 .

[15]  Joseph H. Koo,et al.  Nanocomposite rocket ablative materials: Subscale ablation test , 2004 .

[16]  Michael Griebel,et al.  Molecular Simulation of the Influence of Chemical Cross-Links on the Shear Strength of Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Interfaces , 2002 .

[17]  R. Hansen.  Handbook of polymeric foams and foam technology, Daniel Klempner and Kurt C. Frisch, eds., Hanser Publishers, Munich, Germany, 1992, 442 pp. price: $148.00. (Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by Oxford University Press, New York.) , 1993 .

[18]  P. Baron,et al.  Unusual inflammatory and fibrogenic pulmonary responses to single-walled carbon nanotubes in mice. , 2005, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[19]  Chunfang Song,et al.  Study of the exfoliation process of epoxy–clay nanocomposites by different curing agents , 2003 .

[20]  Robertson,et al.  Energetics of nanoscale graphitic tubules. , 1992, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[21]  D. Hui,et al.  Enhancement of the Mechanical Strength of Polymer-Based Composites Using Carbon Nanotubes , 2005 .

[22]  R. Gorga,et al.  Toughness enhancements in poly(methyl methacrylate) by addition of oriented multiwall carbon nanotubes , 2004 .

[23]  A. Zettl,et al.  Thermal conductivity of single-walled carbon nanotubes , 1998 .

[24]  G. Hu,et al.  Preparation of polypropylene/carbon nanotube composite powder with a solid‐state mechanochemical pulverization process , 2004 .

[25]  V. Rangari,et al.  Fabrication and mechanical characterization of carbon/SiC-epoxy nanocomposites , 2005 .

[26]  François Huaux,et al.  Respiratory toxicity of carbon nanotubes: How worried should we be? , 2006 .

[27]  E. Giannelis,et al.  Rheology of End-Tethered Polymer Layered Silicate Nanocomposites , 1997 .

[28]  M. Shaffer,et al.  Crystallization of Carbon Nanotube and Nanofiber Polypropylene Composites , 2003 .

[29]  S. Ray,et al.  New Polylactide/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites, 6 , 2003 .

[30]  C. Ober,et al.  Study of the interlayer expansion mechanism and thermal–mechanical properties of surface-initiated epoxy nanocomposites , 2002 .

[31]  Chenggang Chen,et al.  Processing and morphological development of montmorillonite epoxy nanocomposites , 2003 .

[32]  Thomas J. Pinnavaia,et al.  Mechanism of Clay Tactoid Exfoliation in Epoxy-Clay Nanocomposites , 1995 .

[33]  M. Cakmak,et al.  Superstructural hierarchy developed in coupled high shear/high thermal gradient conditions of injection molding in nylon 6 nanocomposites , 2004 .

[34]  Z. C. Tu,et al.  Single-walled and multiwalled carbon nanotubes viewed as elastic tubes with the effective Young's moduli dependent on layer number , 2001, cond-mat/0112454.

[35]  R. Krishnamoorti,et al.  Simulation Insights on the Structure of Nanoscopically Confined Poly(ethylene oxide) , 2003 .

[36]  Zhengwei Pan,et al.  Tensile tests of ropes of very long aligned multiwall carbon nanotubes , 1999 .

[37]  Samit Roy,et al.  CHARACTERIZATION AND MODELING OF STRENGTH ENHANCEMENT MECHANISMS IN A POLYMER/CLAY NANOCOMPOSITE , 2005 .

[38]  Hui-Ming Cheng,et al.  Tensile strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic ropes , 2000 .

[39]  M. Boyce,et al.  Multiscale micromechanical modeling of polymer/clay nanocomposites and the effective clay particle , 2004 .

[40]  T. Kurauchi,et al.  Synthesis and properties of polyimide–clay hybrid , 1993 .

[41]  M. Shaffer,et al.  Analogies between polymer solutions and carbon nanotube dispersions , 1999 .

[42]  Emmanuel P. Giannelis,et al.  NEW ADVANCES IN POLYMER/LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES , 2002 .

[43]  T. Kurauchi,et al.  Novel preferred orientation in injection‐molded nylon 6‐clay hybrid , 1995 .

[44]  S. Bao,et al.  Intercalation and exfoliation behavior of epoxy resin/curing agent/montmorillonite nanocomposite , 2002 .

[45]  D. Resasco,et al.  Nucleation of Polypropylene Crystallization by Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes , 2002 .

[46]  Linda S. Schadler,et al.  Surface modification of multiwalled carbon nanotubes: Toward the tailoring of the interface in polymer composites , 2003 .

[47]  Mehdi Hojjati,et al.  Epoxy-silicate nanocomposites: Cure monitoring and characterization , 2007 .

[48]  T. Golden,et al.  Epoxy + montmorillonite nanocomposite: Effect of composition on reaction kinetics , 2001 .

[49]  P. Borm,et al.  PARTICLE TOXICOLOGY: FROM COAL MINING TO NANOTECHNOLOGY , 2002, Inhalation toxicology.

[50]  Jun Liu,et al.  Surfactant-assisted processing of carbon nanotube/polymer composites , 2000 .

[51]  Jianping Lu,et al.  Elastic properties of single and multilayered nanotubes , 1997 .

[52]  P. Messersmith,et al.  Synthesis and Characterization of Layered Silicate-Epoxy Nanocomposites , 1994 .

[53]  J. Tour,et al.  Glass transition of polymer/single-walled carbon nanotube composite films , 2003 .

[54]  Richard A. Vaia,et al.  Synthesis and properties of two-dimensional nanostructures by direct intercalation of polymer melts in layered silicates , 1993 .

[55]  S. Ray,et al.  Biodegradable Polylactide and Its Nanocomposites: Opening a New Dimension for Plastics and Composites , 2003 .

[56]  David P. Anderson,et al.  The role of preconditioning on morphology development in layered silicate thermoset nanocomposites , 2004 .

[57]  Mei Lu,et al.  Thermal and mechanical properties of single-walled carbon nanotube bundle-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites : the role of solvent for nanotube dispersion , 2005 .

[58]  David Hui,et al.  The revolutionary creation of new advanced materials - Carbon nanotube composites , 2002 .

[59]  N. Salahuddin,et al.  Nanocomposite materials based on polyurethane intercalated into montmorillonite clay , 2005 .

[60]  Maurizio Fermeglia,et al.  Computer simulation of polypropylene/organoclay nanocomposites: characterization of atomic scale structure and prediction of binding energy , 2004 .

[61]  W. Fan,et al.  Preparation and thermal stability of polypropylene/montmorillonite nanocomposites , 2003 .

[62]  S. Jeelani,et al.  Studies on the flexural and thermomechanical properties of woven carbon/nanoclay-epoxy laminates , 2006 .

[63]  E. Wachtel,et al.  Nucleation ability of multiwall carbon nanotubes in polypropylene composites , 2003 .

[64]  Robert H. Hauge,et al.  Crystallization and orientation studies in polypropylene/single wall carbon nanotube composite , 2003 .

[65]  J. T. Lindt,et al.  Electrical properties of exfoliated‐graphite filled polyethylene composites , 1986 .

[66]  A. Okada,et al.  Preparation and mechanical properties of polypropylene-clay hybrids using a maleic anhydride-modified polypropylene oligomer , 1998 .

[67]  M. Dresselhaus,et al.  Electronic, thermal and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes , 2004, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[68]  Hassan Mahfuz,et al.  Fabrication, synthesis and mechanical characterization of nanoparticles infused polyurethane foams , 2004 .

[69]  K. Lozano,et al.  Nanofiber‐reinforced thermoplastic composites. I. Thermoanalytical and mechanical analyses , 2001 .

[70]  Robert A. Meyers,et al.  Encyclopedia of physical science and technology , 1987 .

[71]  H. Lindberg,et al.  Synthesis of epoxy–clay nanocomposites: influence of the nature of the clay on structure , 2001 .

[72]  J. Fraser Stoddart,et al.  Preparation and Properties of Polymer-Wrapped Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes , 2001 .

[73]  Richard A. Vaia,et al.  Microstructural Evolution of Melt Intercalated Polymer−Organically Modified Layered Silicates Nanocomposites , 1996 .

[74]  V. Rangari,et al.  Response of sandwich composites with nanophased cores under flexural loading , 2004 .

[75]  Meyya Meyyappan,et al.  Carbon Nanotubes: Science and Applications , 2007 .

[76]  Z. Gu,et al.  Direct Synthesis of High Purity Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Fibers by Arc Discharge , 2004 .

[77]  P. T. Lillehei,et al.  Melt processing of SWCNT-polyimide nanocomposite fibers , 2004 .

[78]  Chun-Guey Wu,et al.  Conducting Polyaniline Filaments in a Mesoporous Channel Host , 1994, Science.

[79]  A. Balazs,et al.  Theoretical Phase Diagrams of Polymer/Clay Composites: The Role of Grafted Organic Modifiers , 2000 .

[80]  Benedict,et al.  Static conductivity and superconductivity of carbon nanotubes: Relations between tubes and sheets. , 1995, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[81]  Joseph H. Koo,et al.  Polymer Nanostructured Materials for Propulsion Systems , 2007 .

[82]  Edwin L. Thomas,et al.  High-Concentration Dispersion of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes , 2004 .

[83]  Alain Celzard,et al.  Composites based on micron-sized exfoliated graphite particles: Electrical conduction, critical exponents and anisotropy , 1996 .

[84]  K. Schulte,et al.  Carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy-composites: enhanced stiffness and fracture toughness at low nanotube content , 2004 .

[85]  Yi-bing Cheng,et al.  Layered Silicate Nanocomposites Based on Various High-Functionality Epoxy Resins: The Influence of Cure Temperature on Morphology, Mechanical Properties, and Free Volume , 2003 .

[86]  S. Ray,et al.  Well-controlled biodegradable nanocomposite foams: From microcellular to nanocellular , 2003 .

[87]  Deron A. Walters,et al.  Elastic strain of freely suspended single-wall carbon nanotube ropes , 1999 .

[88]  S. Ray,et al.  New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites. 5. Designing of materials with desired properties , 2003 .

[89]  D. Warheit.  What is currently known about the health risks related to carbon nanotube exposures , 2006 .

[90]  Ying Zheng,et al.  Effects of nanoparticles SiO2 on the performance of nanocomposites , 2003 .

[91]  R. Aseeva,et al.  Handbook of polymeric foams and foam technology. , 2004 .

[92]  S. Ray,et al.  New polylactide-layered silicate nanocomposites. 2. Concurrent improvements of material properties, biodegradability and melt rheology , 2003 .

[93]  Mo Song,et al.  Polymer/layered clay nanocomposites: 2 polyurethane nanocomposites , 2002 .

[94]  R. L. Shambaugh,et al.  Enhancing the strength of polypropylene fibers with carbon nanotubes , 2004 .

[95]  H. Lindberg,et al.  Synthesis of epoxy–clay nanocomposites. Influence of the nature of the curing agent on structure , 2001 .

[96]  Guohua Chen,et al.  Preparation of polymer/graphite conducting nanocomposite by intercalation polymerization , 2001 .

[97]  Ho-Cheol Kim,et al.  On exfoliation of montmorillonite in epoxy , 2001 .

[98]  A. Okada,et al.  The chemistry of polymer-clay hybrids , 1995 .

[99]  H. Lezec,et al.  Electrical conductivity of individual carbon nanotubes , 1996, Nature.

[100]  Erik Dujardin,et al.  Young's modulus of single-walled nanotubes , 1998 .

[101]  Cheng‐Chien Wang,et al.  Viscoelastic properties and thermal degradation kinetics of silica/PMMA nanocomposites , 2004 .

[102]  P. K. Mallick,et al.  Yield and fatigue behavior of polypropylene and polyamide-6 nanocomposites , 2003 .

[103]  T. Kurauchi,et al.  Swelling behavior of montmorillonite cation exchanged for ω-amino acids by ∊-caprolactam , 1993 .

[104]  Werner J. Blau,et al.  High Performance Nanotube‐Reinforced Plastics: Understanding the Mechanism of Strength Increase , 2004 .

[105]  A. Okada,et al.  Synthesis of polypropylene oligomer—clay intercalation compounds , 1997 .

[106]  A. Celzard,et al.  Anisotropic percolation in an epoxy - graphite disc composite , 1994 .

[107]  G. Liang,et al.  Epoxy/clay nanocomposites: further exfoliation of newly modified clay induced by shearing force of ball milling , 2004 .

[108]  Kingsuk Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures , 2008 .

[109]  A. Balazs,et al.  Calculating Phase Diagrams of Polymer−Platelet Mixtures Using Density Functional Theory: Implications for Polymer/Clay Composites , 1999 .

[110]  Gary G. Tibbetts,et al.  Surface treatments for improving the mechanical properties of carbon nanofiber/thermoplastic composites , 2003 .

[111]  Joy P. Dunkers,et al.  Polymer COMPOSITES , 2000 .

[112]  Ya-Li Li,et al.  Direct Spinning of Carbon Nanotube Fibers from Chemical Vapor Deposition Synthesis , 2004, Science.

[113]  H. Garmestani,et al.  Enhancement of thermal and electrical properties of carbon nanotube polymer composites by magnetic field processing , 2003 .

[114]  A. Balazs,et al.  Calculating Phase Diagrams for Nanocomposites: The Effect of Adding End‐Functionalized Chains to Polymer/Clay Mixtures , 2000 .

[115]  Joerg Mayer,et al.  Distribution and alignment of carbon nanotubes and nanofibrils in a polymer matrix , 2002 .

[116]  Suprakas Sinha Ray,et al.  POLYMER/LAYERED SILICATE NANOCOMPOSITES: A REVIEW FROM PREPARATION TO PROCESSING , 2003 .

[117]  I. Šics,et al.  On the structure and morphology of polyvinylidene fluoride-nanoclay nanocomposites , 2006 .

[118]  Tsu-Wei Chou,et al.  Elastic moduli of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and the effect of van der Waals forces , 2003 .

[119]  Raman P. Singh,et al.  Mechanical reinforcement of unsaturated polyester by AL2O3 nanoparticles , 2004 .

[120]  J. Bernholc,et al.  Nanomechanics of carbon tubes: Instabilities beyond linear response. , 1996, Physical review letters.

[121]  L. Schadler,et al.  Influence of nanoparticle surface modification on the electrical behaviour of polyethylene nanocomposites , 2005 .

[122]  S. Advani,et al.  Characterization of orientation state of carbon nanotubes in shear flow , 2005 .

[123]  Eric A. Grulke,et al.  MULTIWALLED CARBON NANOTUBE POLYMER COMPOSITES: SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THIN FILMS , 2002 .

[124]  N. Kotov,et al.  Ultrathin graphite oxide–polyelectrolyte composites prepared by self‐assembly: Transition between conductive and non‐conductive states , 1996 .

[125]  V. Castranova,et al.  Redox cycling of phenol induces oxidative stress in human epidermal keratinocytes. , 2000, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[126]  Eyal Zussman,et al.  Carbon Nanotubes Embedded in Oriented Polymer Nanofibers by Electrospinning , 2003 .

[127]  Makoto Kato,et al.  Preparation and mechanical properties of polypropylene–clay hybrids based on modified polypropylene and organophilic clay , 2000 .

[128]  P. Bernier,et al.  Effects of fullerenes and single-wall carbon nanotubes on murine and human macrophages , 2006 .

[129]  ScienceDirect.  Current opinion in solid state & materials science , 1996 .

[130]  P. Baron,et al.  Exposure to Carbon Nanotube Material: Assessment of Nanotube Cytotoxicity using Human Keratinocyte Cells , 2003, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[131]  Y. Ke,et al.  The effects of promoter and curing process on exfoliation behavior of epoxy/clay nanocomposites , 2000 .

[132]  Takashi Kashiwagi,et al.  NANOCOMPOSITES : A REVOLUTIONARY NEW FLAME RETARDANT APPROACH , 1997 .

[133]  G. Odegard,et al.  Modeling and Testing of the Viscoelastic Properties of a Graphite Nanoplatelet/Epoxy Composite , 2006 .

[134]  Dirk Roosen.  S2 glass/vinylester polymer nanocomposites : Manufacturing, structures, thermal and mechanical properties , 2005 .

[135]  Kwon,et al.  Unusually high thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes , 2000, Physical review letters.

[136]  L. J. Lee,et al.  Kinetic analysis and mechanical properties of nanoclay reinforced unsaturated polyester (UP) resins cured at low temperatures , 2005 .

[137]  Christian A. Martin,et al.  Electric field-induced aligned multi-wall carbon nanotube networks in epoxy composites , 2005 .

[138]  S. Ray,et al.  New poly(butylene succinate)/layered silicate nanocomposites. II. Effect of organically modified layered silicates on structure, properties, melt rheology, and biodegradability , 2003 .

[139]  M. Kamal,et al.  Melt processing of PA‐66/clay, HDPE/clay and HDPE/PA‐66/clay nanocomposites , 2004 .

[140]  R. Nemanich,et al.  Multi-walled carbon nanotube interactions with human epidermal keratinocytes. , 2005, Toxicology letters.

[141]  J. Seferis,et al.  Nanoclay reinforcement effects on the cryogenic microcracking of carbon fiber/epoxy composites , 2002 .

[142]  D. Ratna,et al.  Clay‐reinforced epoxy nanocomposites , 2003 .

[143]  Richard W. Siegel,et al.  Glass transition behavior of alumina/polymethylmethacrylate nanocomposites , 2002 .

[144]  H. Shioyama.  Polymerization of isoprene and styrene in the interlayer spacing of graphite , 1997 .

[145]  Liangchi Zhang,et al.  The stress transfer efficiency of a single-walled carbon nanotube in epoxy matrix , 2004 .

[146]  A. Yamagishi,et al.  Application of the Langmuir−Blodgett Technique to Prepare a Clay−Metal Complex Hybrid Film , 1999 .

[147]  H. Wagner,et al.  Buckling and Collapse of Embedded Carbon Nanotubes , 1998 .

[148]  M. Ivanković,et al.  DSC study of the cure kinetics during nanocomposite formation: Epoxy/poly(oxypropylene) diamine/organically modified montmorillonite system , 2006 .

[149]  Jianguo Deng,et al.  Carbon nanotube–polyaniline hybrid materials , 2002 .

[150]  I. Daniel,et al.  Processing of expanded graphite reinforced polymer nanocomposites , 2006 .

[151]  O. Park,et al.  The fabrication of syndiotactic polystyrene/organophilic clay nanocomposites and their properties , 2001 .

[152]  M. Kotaki,et al.  Recent advances in polymer nanofibers. , 2004, Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology.

[153]  A. Salinaro,et al.  Chemical oxidation and DNA damage catalysed by inorganic sunscreen ingredients , 1997, FEBS letters.

[154]  J. T. Lindt,et al.  Electrical properties of exfoliated -graphite filled polyester based composites , 1987 .

[155]  R. Smalley,et al.  Single Wall Carbon Nanotube Fibers Extruded from Super-Acid Suspensions: Preferred Orientation, Electrical and Thermal Transport , 2004 .

[156]  Joseph H. Koo,et al.  Polymer nanostructured materials for high temperature applications , 2005 .

[157]  Thomas J. Pinnavaia,et al.  Polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites: an overview , 1999 .

[158]  Linda S. Schadler,et al.  LOAD TRANSFER IN CARBON NANOTUBE EPOXY COMPOSITES , 1998 .

[159]  G. A. D. Briggs,et al.  Elastic and shear moduli of single-walled carbon nanotube ropes , 1999 .

[160]  M. Xiao,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of polyaniline/graphite conducting nanocomposites , 2004 .

[161]  C. Xie,et al.  Novel 1–3 metal nanoparticle/polymer composites induced by hybrid external fields , 2006 .

[162]  H. Dai,et al.  Recent Advances in Methods of Forming Carbon Nanotubes , 2004 .

[163]  Christian A. Martin,et al.  Formation of percolating networks in multi-wall carbon-nanotube–epoxy composites , 2004 .

[164]  S. Jana,et al.  Dispersion of nanofillers in high performance polymers using reactive solvents as processing aids , 2001 .

[165]  Robert H. Hurt,et al.  Toxicology of carbon nanomaterials: Status, trends, and perspectives on the special issue , 2006 .

[166]  W. Huang,et al.  Structure and electrical properties of grafted polypropylene/graphite nanocomposites prepared by solution intercalation , 2003 .

[167]  R. Wepf,et al.  The Human Stratum corneum Layer: An Effective Barrier against Dermal Uptake of Different Forms of Topically Applied Micronised Titanium Dioxide , 2001, Skin Pharmacology and Physiology.

[168]  A. Gu,et al.  Thermal degradation behaviour and kinetic analysis of epoxy/montmorillonite nanocomposites , 2003 .

[169]  M. S. de Vries,et al.  Cobalt-catalysed growth of carbon nanotubes with single-atomic-layer walls , 1993, Nature.

[170]  Otto Zhou,et al.  Deformation of carbon nanotubes in nanotube–polymer composites , 1999 .

[171]  J. Broda.  Polymorphism in polypropylene fibers , 2003 .

[172]  Elizabeth C. Dickey,et al.  Load transfer and deformation mechanisms in carbon nanotube-polystyrene composites , 2000 .

[173]  Jose Maria Kenny,et al.  Dielectric behavior of epoxy matrix/single-walled carbon nanotube composites , 2004 .

[174]  Meng Feng,et al.  Thermal properties of poly(vinyl chloride)/montmorillonite nanocomposites , 2004 .

[175]  Da-Zhu Chen,et al.  Monitoring the curing process of epoxy resin nanocomposites based on organo-montmorillonite – a new application of resin curemeter , 2004 .

[176]  S. Advani,et al.  Use of epoxy/multiwalled carbon nanotubes as adhesives to join graphite fibre reinforced polymer composites , 2003 .

[177]  Donald R Paul,et al.  Effect of melt processing conditions on the extent of exfoliation in organoclay-based nanocomposites , 2001 .

[178]  Chunyu Li,et al.  A STRUCTURAL MECHANICS APPROACH FOR THE ANALYSIS OF CARBON NANOTUBES , 2003 .

[179]  Van Vlack,et al.  Physical ceramics for engineers , 1964 .

[180]  T. Ebbesen,et al.  Exceptionally high Young's modulus observed for individual carbon nanotubes , 1996, Nature.

[181]  Myung Jong Kim,et al.  Macroscopic, Neat, Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Fibers , 2002, Science.

[182]  Yao Wang,et al.  Effect of processing on morphological structure of polyacrylonitrile matrix nano-ZnO composites , 2003 .

[183]  Limin Wu,et al.  Preparation and characterization of nanocomposite polyurethane. , 2004, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[184]  Thomas J. Pinnavaia,et al.  On the Nature of Polyimide-Clay Hybrid Composites , 1994 .

[185]  C. Ha,et al.  Microstructure, tensile properties, and biodegradability of aliphatic polyester/clay nanocomposites , 2002 .

[186]  E. Giannelis,et al.  Synthesis and properties of new poly(dimethylsiloxane) nanocomposites , 1995 .

[187]  Jing Li,et al.  Conductive graphite nanoplatelet/epoxy nanocomposites: Effects of exfoliation and UV/ozone treatment of graphite , 2005 .

[188]  A. Ōya,et al.  Intercalation of methacrylamide into sodium, calcium and alkylammonium exchanged montmorillonites , 1994 .

[189]  Emmanuel P. Giannelis,et al.  Polymer Layered Silicate Nanocomposites , 1996 .

[190]  Sanjay Mazumdar,et al.  Composites Manufacturing: Materials, Product, and Process Engineering , 2001, The Aeronautical Journal (1968).

[191]  Charles R. Martin,et al.  Nanomaterials: A Membrane-Based Synthetic Approach , 1994, Science.

[192]  K. Wei,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of novel segmented polyurethane/clay nanocomposite via poly(ε‐caprolactone)/clay , 1999 .

[193]  D. Eedy,et al.  Carbon‐fibre‐induced airborne irritant contact dermatitis , 1996, Contact dermatitis.

[194]  T. Kotaka,et al.  Biaxial Flow-Induced Alignment of Silicate Layers in Polypropylene/Clay Nanocomposite Foam , 2001 .

[195]  R. Vaia,et al.  Kinetics of polymer melt intercalation , 1995 .

[196]  A. Hiltner,et al.  Nanoscale highly filled epoxy nanocomposite , 2002 .

[197]  Lee Wook Jang,et al.  Characterization of epoxy–clay hybrid composite prepared by emulsion polymerization , 1998 .

[198]  Thomas J. Pinnavaia,et al.  Nanolayer Reinforcement of Elastomeric Polyurethane , 1998 .

[199]  I. Rahman,et al.  Biomarkers in risk assessment of asbestos exposure. , 2005, Mutation research.

[200]  Virginia Yong,et al.  Processing and properties of SiC/vinyl ester nanocomposites , 2004 .

[201]  L. Larrondo,et al.  Electrostatic fiber spinning from polymer melts. I. Experimental observations on fiber formation and properties , 1981 .

[202]  A. Rinzler,et al.  ALIGNED SINGLE-WALL CARBON NANOTUBES IN COMPOSITES BY MELT PROCESSING METHODS , 2000 .

[203]  U. Sundararaj,et al.  Thermal, Rheological, and Mechanical Behaviors of LLDPE/PEMA/Clay Nanocomposites: Effect of Interaction Between Polymer, Compatibilizer, and Nanofiller , 2006 .

[204]  Kazunobu Yamada,et al.  Polylactide-Layered Silicate Nanocomposite: A Novel Biodegradable Material , 2002 .

[205]  Otto Zhou,et al.  Alignment of carbon nanotubes in a polymer matrix by mechanical stretching , 1998 .

[206]  M. Gregory,et al.  Equivalent-Continuum Modeling of Nano-Structured Materials , 2001 .

[207]  Klaus Friedrich,et al.  Creep resistant polymeric nanocomposites , 2004 .

[208]  Guo-Hua Hu,et al.  A new process of fabricating electrically conducting nylon 6/graphite nanocomposites via intercalation polymerization , 2000 .

[209]  J. Jang,et al.  A study on the effect of surface treatment of carbon nanotubes for liquid crystalline epoxide–carbon nanotube composites , 2003 .

[210]  Bingqing Wei,et al.  Study on poly(methyl methacrylate)/carbon nanotube composites , 1999 .

[211]  René A. J. Janssen,et al.  Electrochemical Society Proceedings , 2000 .

[212]  Ajit D. Kelkar,et al.  Nanoengineering Of Structural, Functional And Smart Materials , 2005 .

[213]  R. Andrews,et al.  Carbon nanotube polymer composites , 2004 .

[214]  R. Vaia,et al.  Influence of polymer matrix composition and architecture on polymer nanocomposite formation: Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation , 2003 .

[215]  Samit Roy,et al.  Manufacturing, Mechanical Characterization, and Modeling of a Pultruded Thermoplastic Nanocomposite , 2005 .

[216]  Wengui Weng,et al.  Preparation of polystyrene/graphite nanosheet composite , 2003 .

[217]  David P. Anderson,et al.  Morphology development in layered silicate thermoset nanocomposites , 2002 .

[218]  Michael M. Lerner,et al.  Nanocomposites and Intercalation Compounds , 2003 .

[219]  C. Glinka.  Methods of X-Ray and Neutron Scattering in Polymer Science, by Ryong-Joon Roe , 2001 .

[220]  Milo S. P. Shaffer,et al.  Development of a dispersion process for carbon nanotubes in an epoxy matrix and the resulting electrical properties , 1999 .

[221]  R. Vaia,et al.  Thermoset-Layered Silicate Nanocomposites. Quaternary Ammonium Montmorillonite with Primary Diamine Cured Epoxies , 2000 .

[222]  C Durkan,et al.  Single Crystals of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Formed by Self-Assembly , 2001, Science.

[223]  Y. Kim,et al.  Role of systemic T-cells and histopathological aspects after subcutaneous implantation of various carbon nanotubes in mice , 2006 .

[224]  D.D.L. Chung,et al.  Exfoliation of graphite , 1987 .

[225]  Hui-Ming Cheng,et al.  Mechanical and electrical properties of a MWNT/epoxy composite , 2002 .

[226]  M. Matsuo,et al.  Development of Highly Oriented Polyethylene Filled with Aligned Carbon Nanotubes by Gelation/Crystallization from Solutions , 2003 .

[227]  Wengui Weng,et al.  Fabrication and characterization of nylon 6/foliated graphite electrically conducting nanocomposite , 2004 .

[228]  S. Ray,et al.  Intercalated Polycarbonate/Clay Nanocomposites: Nanostructure Control and Foam Processing , 2003 .

[229]  Klaus Friedrich,et al.  Tensile performance improvement of low nanoparticles filled-polypropylene composites , 2002 .

[230]  G. Beaucage,et al.  3D Hierarchical orientation in polymer -clay nanocomposite films , 2003 .

[231]  R. Standish,et al.  Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Organic−Inorganic Nanocomposites: Layering Behavior and Interlayer Structure of Organoclays , 2003 .

[232]  Tsu-Wei Chou,et al.  Nanocomposites in context , 2005 .

[233]  L. Larrondo,et al.  Electrostatic fiber spinning from polymer melts. III. Electrostatic deformation of a pendant drop of polymer melt , 1981 .

[234]  G. Beaucage,et al.  Optical properties and orientation in polyethylene blown films , 2001 .

[235]  Nancy A. Monteiro-Riviere,et al.  Challenges for assessing carbon nanomaterial toxicity to the skin , 2006 .

[236]  K. Kuroda,et al.  Preparation of Inorganic–Organic Nanocomposites through Intercalation of Organoammonium Ions into Layered Silicates , 1997 .

[237]  J. Kressler,et al.  Nanocomposites based on a synthetic layer silicate and polyamide-12 , 1998 .

[238]  P. Ajayan,et al.  Aligned Carbon Nanotube Arrays Formed by Cutting a Polymer Resin—Nanotube Composite , 1994, Science.

[239]  David B. Warheit,et al.  NANOPARTICLES: HEALTH IMPACTS? , 2004 .

[240]  R. Roe,et al.  Methods of X-ray and Neutron Scattering in Polymer Science , 2000 .

[241]  Milo S. P. Shaffer,et al.  Dispersion and packing of carbon nanotubes , 1998 .

[242]  E. Thostenson,et al.  REVIEW NANOCOMPOSITES IN CONTEXT , 2005 .

[243]  Y. Lam,et al.  Strengthening acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) with nano-sized and micron-sized calcium carbonate , 2005 .

[244]  Kenneth A. Smith,et al.  In-plane-aligned membranes of carbon nanotubes , 2001 .

[245]  W. S. Johnson,et al.  Processing and properties of poly(methyl methacrylate)/carbon nano fiber composites , 2004 .

[246]  R. Gorga,et al.  Morphological and mechanical properties of carbon nanotube/polymer composites via melt compounding , 2006 .

[247]  G. Edward,et al.  FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF CLAY-EPOXY NANOCOMPOSITES , 2005 .

[248]  Lars Martin Ericson.  Strength characterization of suspended single-wall carbon nanotube ropes , 2001 .

[249]  T. Kotaka,et al.  Foam processing and cellular structure of polypropylene/clay nanocomposites , 2002 .

[250]  O. K. Tse,et al.  Relaxations of confined chains in polymer nanocomposites: Glass transition properties of poly(ethylene oxide) intercalated in montmorillonite , 1997 .

[251]  Z. Yu,et al.  A new conception on the toughness of nylon 6/silica nanocomposite prepared via in situ polymerization , 1998 .

[252]  T. Ichihashi,et al.  Single-shell carbon nanotubes of 1-nm diameter , 1993, Nature.

[253]  M. Anantram,et al.  Observation and Modeling of Single Wall Carbon Nanotube Bend Junctions , 1998 .

[254]  Darren J. Martin,et al.  THE BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF CARBON NANOTUBES , 2006 .

[255]  L. Drzal,et al.  Dynamic Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Phenylethynyl‐Terminated Polyimide Composites Reinforced With Expanded Graphite Nanoplatelets , 2005 .

[256]  A. Okada,et al.  Preparation and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene−Clay Hybrids , 1997 .

[257]  L. Larrondo,et al.  Electrostatic fiber spinning from polymer melts. II. Examination of the flow field in an electrically driven jet , 1981 .

[258]  G. Xu,et al.  Dynamic mechanical behavior of melt-processed multi-walled carbon nanotube/poly(methyl methacrylate) composites , 2001 .

[259]  R. L. Shambaugh,et al.  Polypropylene fibers reinforced with carbon nanotubes , 2002 .

[260]  P. Dubois,et al.  Polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites: preparation, properties and uses of a new class of materials , 2000 .

[261]  A. Argon,et al.  Toughenability of Nylon-6 with CaCO3 filler particles: new findings and general principles , 2001 .

[262]  C. R. Martin,et al.  Membrane-Based Synthesis of Nanomaterials , 1996 .

[263]  D.D.L. Chung,et al.  Carbon fiber composites , 1994 .

[264]  Chuck Zhang,et al.  Investigation of the dispersion process of SWNTs/SC-15 epoxy resin nanocomposites , 2004 .

[265]  M. Santare,et al.  Melt processing and mechanical property characterization of multi-walled carbon nanotube/high density polyethylene (MWNT/HDPE) composite films , 2003 .

[266]  L. Manevitch,et al.  Simple "kink" model of melt intercalation in polymer-clay nanocomposites. , 2001, Physical review letters.

[267]  S. Jana,et al.  Mechanism of Exfoliation of Nanoclay Particles in Epoxy−Clay Nanocomposites , 2003 .

[268]  D. Dean,et al.  Chemorheology and properties of epoxy/layered silicate nanocomposites , 2005 .

[269]  T. Chou,et al.  Advances in the science and technology of carbon nanotubes and their composites: a review , 2001 .

[270]  Limin Wu,et al.  Structure and properties of polyurethane/nanosilica composites , 2005 .

[271]  Isaac M. Daniel,et al.  Characterization and modeling of mechanical behavior of polymer/clay nanocomposites , 2003 .

[272]  Z. Ren,et al.  Dispersion and alignment of carbon nanotubes in polycarbonate , 2003 .

[273]  Eklund,et al.  Solution properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes , 1998, Science.

[274]  K. R. Atkinson,et al.  Multifunctional Carbon Nanotube Yarns by Downsizing an Ancient Technology , 2004, Science.

[275]  Derrick Dean,et al.  S2-Glass/Epoxy Polymer Nanocomposites: Manufacturing, Structures, Thermal and Mechanical Properties , 2003 .

[276]  S. Iijima.  Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon , 1991, Nature.

[277]  W. Pan,et al.  Cure behavior of epoxy resin/MMT/DETA nanocomposite , 2004 .

[278]  M. Hussain,et al.  Effect of organo-phosphorus and nano-clay materials on the thermal and fire performance of epoxy resins , 2004 .

[279]  Milo S. P. Shaffer,et al.  Carbon Nanotube and Polypyrrole Composites: Coating and Doping , 2000 .

[280]  Joseph H. Koo,et al.  Nanocomposites for Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites , 2005 .