A Large-Scale Emulation System for Realistic Three-Dimensional (3-D) Forest Simulation

The realistic reconstruction and radiometric simulation of a large-scale three-dimensional (3-D) forest scene have potential applications in remote sensing. Although many 3-D radiative transfer models concerning forest canopy have been developed, they mainly focused on homogeneous or relatively small heterogeneous scenes, which are not compatible with the coarse-resolution remote sensing observations. Due to the huge complexity of forests and the inefficiency of collecting precise 3-D data of large areas, realistic simulation over large-scale forest area remains challenging, especially in regions of complex terrain. In this study, a large-scale emulation system for realistic 3-D forest Simulation is proposed. The 3-D forest scene is constructed from a representative single tree database (SDB) and airborne laser scanning (ALS) data. ALS data are used to extract tree height, crown diameter and position, which are linked to the individual trees in SDB. To simulate the radiometric properties of the reconstructed scene, a radiative transfer model based on a parallelized ray-tracing code was developed. This model has been validated with an abstract and an actual 3-D scene from the radiation transfer model intercomparison website and it showed comparable results with other models. Finally, a 1 km $\times$ 1 km scene with more than 100 000 realistic individual trees was reconstructed and a Landsat-like reflectance image was simulated, which kept the same spatial pattern as the actual Landsat 8 image.