Spatial Mental Representation: Implications for Navigation System Design:

Similarities exist in how people process and represent spatial information and in the factors that contribute to disorientation, whether one is moving through airspace, on the ground, or surgically within the body. As such, design principles for presenting spatial information should bear similarities across these domains but also be somewhat specific to each. In this chapter, we review research in spatial cognition and its application to navigation system design for within-vehicle, aviation, and endoscopic navigation systems. Taken together, the research suggests three general principles for navigation system design consideration. First, multimedia displays should present spatial information visually and action and description information verbally. Second, display organizations should meet users' dynamic navigational goals. Third, navigation systems should be adaptable to users' spatial information preferences. Designers of adaptive navigation display technologies can maximize the effectiveness of those technologies by appealing to the basic spatial cognition processes employed by all users while conforming to user's domain-specific requirements. Keywords: Driver distraction; Pilot distraction Language: en

[1]  David Lewis,et al.  We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific , 1975 .

[2]  Paul U. Lee,et al.  Wayfinding choremes - a language for modeling conceptual route knowledge , 2005, J. Vis. Lang. Comput..

[3]  Andrew P. Duchon,et al.  Do Humans Integrate Routes Into a Cognitive Map? Map- Versus Landmark-Based Navigation of Novel Shortcuts , 2005 .

[4]  E. Maguire,et al.  The Well-Worn Route and the Path Less Traveled Distinct Neural Bases of Route Following and Wayfinding in Humans , 2003, Neuron.

[5]  C. Myers.  Educational Psychology , 1904, Nature.

[6]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Target Cuing in Visual Search: The Effects of Conformality and Display Location on the Allocation of Visual Attention , 1999, Hum. Factors.

[7]  Michael F. Worboys,et al.  Levels of Detail in Descriptions and Depictions of Geographic Space , 2007, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[8]  Tad T. Brunyé,et al.  Extended experience benefits spatial mental model development with route but not survey descriptions. , 2008, Acta psychologica.

[9]  D. Appleyard.  Styles and Methods of Structuring a City , 1970 .

[10]  L. Gugerty,et al.  Reference-frame misalignment and cardinal direction judgments: group differences and strategies. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[11]  George W. Furnas,et al.  Navigation in Electronic Worlds. , 1997 .

[12]  R. Mayer,et al.  Engaging students in active learning: The case for personalized multimedia messages. , 2000 .

[13]  Y Utsui,et al.  NAVIGATION SYSTEM DESTINATION ENTRY: THE EFFECTS OF DRIVER WORKLOAD AND INPUT DEVICES, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SAE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE , 2000 .

[14]  Stephen C. Hirtle,et al.  Navigation in Electronic Environments , 2006 .

[15]  R. Shepard,et al.  Upward direction, mental rotation, and discrimination of left and right turns in maps , 1984, Cognition.

[16]  Elizabeth S. Spelke,et al.  A geometric process for spatial reorientation in young children , 1994, Nature.

[17]  P. Saariluoma,et al.  Taxi drivers’ exceptional memory of street names , 2001, Memory & cognition.

[18]  Anthony J. Aretz,et al.  The Mental Rotation of Map Displays , 1992 .

[19]  Dylan M. Jones,et al.  The effects of maps on navigation and search strategies in very-large-scale virtual environments , 1999 .

[20]  P. Johnson-Laird,et al.  Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness , 1985 .

[21]  K. F. R. Schiller,et al.  Practical Gastrointestinal Endoscopy , 1983 .

[22]  Marketta Kyttä,et al.  Children and their environments.Learning, Using and Designing Spaces , 2006 .

[23]  B. Saunders,et al.  First clinical results with a real time, electronic imager as an aid to colonoscopy. , 1995, Gut.

[24]  T. Hugh.  New strategies to prevent laparoscopic bile duct injury--surgeons can learn from pilots. , 2002, Surgery.

[25]  M. Denis,et al.  The production of route directions: investigating conditions that favour conciseness in spatial discourse , 2004 .

[26]  J. Kaspersen,et al.  Laparoscopic navigation pointer for three-dimensional image–guided surgery , 2004, Surgical Endoscopy And Other Interventional Techniques.

[27]  Richard A. Robb,et al.  Medicine meets virtual reality 2001 : Outer Space, Inner Space, Virtual Space , 2001 .

[28]  Roberta L Klatzky,et al.  Spatial updating of locations specified by 3-d sound and spatial language. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[29]  G W Evans,et al.  Cognitive mapping: knowledge of real-world distance and location information. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[30]  Stephan Winter,et al.  Structural Salience of Landmarks for Route Directions , 2005, COSIT.

[31]  T. McNamara,et al.  Orientation and perspective dependence in route and survey learning. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[32]  R. S. Smith,et al.  The army special operations aircraft integrated avionics subsystem-an operational perspective , 1991, IEEE/AIAA 10th Digital Avionics Systems Conference.

[33]  Alexander Klippel,et al.  Wayfinding choremes - conceptualizing wayfinding and route direction elements , 2003, Künstliche Intell..

[34]  T. McNamara,et al.  The representation and integration in memory of spatial and nonspatial information , 1992, Memory & cognition.

[35]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  Learning to find your way: a role for the human hippocampal formation , 1996, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[36]  Amy L Shelton,et al.  Individual skill differences and large-scale environmental learning. , 2006, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[37]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Head Up versus Head Down: The Costs of Imprecision, Unreliability, and Visual Clutter on Cue Effectiveness for Display Signaling , 2003, Hum. Factors.

[38]  Albert C. Stevens,et al.  Distortions in judged spatial relations , 1978, Cognitive Psychology.

[39]  Chris Stolte,et al.  Rendering effective route maps: improving usability through generalization , 2001, SIGGRAPH.

[40]  M. Hegarty,et al.  Individual Differences in Spatial Abilities , 2005 .

[41]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  How Maps Work - Representation, Visualization, and Design , 1995 .

[42]  L. Nadel,et al.  The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map , 1978 .

[43]  R L Klatzky,et al.  Path integration while ignoring irrelevant movement. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[44]  B. Tversky.  Spatial mental models , 1991 .

[45]  M. Denis,et al.  Language and spatial cognition: comparing the roles of landmarks and street names in route instructions , 2004 .

[46]  Tad T. Brunyé,et al.  Working memory in developing and applying mental models from spatial descriptions , 2008 .

[47]  William H Warren,et al.  Path Integration from Optic Flow and Body Senses in a Homing Task , 2002, Perception.

[48]  W. Chase.  Spatial Representations of Taxi Drivers , 1983 .

[49]  G. Lakoff,et al.  Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind , 1988 .

[50]  R. Mayer,et al.  Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? , 1997 .

[51]  Michael F. Worboys,et al.  Generalizing Graphs Using Amalgamation and Selection , 1999, SSD.

[52]  M. Denis,et al.  Spatial discourse and navigation: an analysis of route directions in the city of Venice , 1999 .

[53]  T. McNamara,et al.  Intrinsic frames of reference in spatial memory. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[54]  Jan B. F. van Erp,et al.  Tactile Navigation Display , 2000, Haptic Human-Computer Interaction.

[55]  Sholl Mj.  Cognitive maps as orienting schemata. , 1987 .

[56]  Sabine Timpf,et al.  Granularity Transformations in Wayfinding , 2003, Spatial Cognition.

[57]  G E Burnett.  USABLE VEHICLE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS : ARE WE THERE YET? , 2000 .

[58]  E. Spelke,et al.  Updating egocentric representations in human navigation , 2000, Cognition.

[59]  Children and their Environments: The problem of lost children , 2006 .

[60]  Francesca Pazzaglia,et al.  Strategies of processing spatial information in survey and landmark-centred individuals. , 2001 .

[61]  David Florence,et al.  Human Performance Evaluation of Alternative Graphic Display Symbologies , 1986 .

[62]  J. D. McGaugh,et al.  Inactivation of Hippocampus or Caudate Nucleus with Lidocaine Differentially Affects Expression of Place and Response Learning , 1996, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[63]  Stephan Winter,et al.  You‐are‐here maps in emergencies –the danger of getting lost , 2006 .

[64]  George W. Furnas,et al.  Navigation in electronic worlds: a CHI 97 workshop , 1997, SGCH.

[65]  Desney S. Tan,et al.  With similar visual angles, larger displays improve spatial performance , 2003, CHI '03.

[66]  Martin Tomko,et al.  Identification of the Initial Entity in Granular Route Directions , 2006 .

[67]  M. Hegarty,et al.  A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities , 2004 .

[68]  R. De Beni,et al.  Strategies of processing spatial information in survey and landmark-centred individuals , 2001 .

[69]  David Greathead,et al.  When mental models go wrong: co-occurrences in dynamic, critical systems , 2004, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[70]  C. L. Hull.  The goal-gradient hypothesis and maze learning. , 1932 .

[71]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Electronic Map Evaluation in Simulated Visual Meteorological Conditions , 1997 .

[72]  Sarah S. Chance,et al.  Spatial Updating of Self-Position and Orientation During Real, Imagined, and Virtual Locomotion , 1998 .

[73]  A. Miyake,et al.  The Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking , 2005 .

[74]  Mario A. Gomarasca,et al.  Elements of Cartography , 2009 .

[75]  Stephan Winter,et al.  Enriching Wayfinding Instructions with Local Landmarks , 2002, GIScience.

[76]  Michel Denis,et al.  Referring to Landmark or Street Information in Route Directions: What Difference Does It Make? , 2003, COSIT.

[77]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  Knowing where and getting there: a human navigation network. , 1998, Science.

[78]  Stephan Winter,et al.  Landmarks in the Communication of Route Directions , 2004, GIScience.

[79]  Paul U. Lee,et al.  Interplay Between Visual and Spatial: The Effect of Landmark Descriptions on Comprehension of Route/Survey Spatial Descriptions , 2005, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[80]  Valeria Anna Sovrano,et al.  Reorientation by geometric and landmark information in environments of different size. , 2005, Developmental science.

[81]  E. Sadalla,et al.  Reference points in spatial cognition. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[82]  E. Tolman,et al.  Studies in spatial learning: Orientation and the short-cut. , 1946, Journal of experimental psychology.

[83]  Wesley A. Mah,et al.  Cognitive reference points in judgments of symbolic magnitude , 1982, Cognitive Psychology.

[84]  C. Cao,et al.  Toward Improved Communication in Laparoscopic Surgery: Accounting for Multiple Frames of Reference and Mental Rotations , 2005 .

[85]  Stephan Winter,et al.  Selection of Salient Features for Route Directions , 2004, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[86]  P. Thorndyke.  Distance estimation from cognitive maps , 1981, Cognitive Psychology.

[87]  Mary Hegarty,et al.  Spatial Memory of Real Environments, Virtual Environments, and Maps , 2004 .

[88]  Walter Kintsch,et al.  Propositional and situational representations of text , 1985 .

[89]  G. Lakoff.  Women, fire, and dangerous things : what categories reveal about the mind , 1989 .

[90]  M. Mascolo,et al.  Effect of semantic clustering on the memory of spatial locations. , 1986, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[91]  R Parasuraman,et al.  AUTOMATION AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE IN AVIATION. IN: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY , 2003 .

[92]  J. G. Holden,et al.  Perceptual-motor coordination in an endoscopic surgery simulation , 1999, Surgical Endoscopy.

[93]  Earl L. Wiener,et al.  Human factors of advanced technology (glass cockpit) transport aircraft , 1989 .

[94]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  The Proximity Compatibility Principle: Its Psychological Foundation and Relevance to Display Design , 1995, Hum. Factors.

[95]  John Sweller,et al.  Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning , 1988, Cogn. Sci..

[96]  A. Siegel,et al.  The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. , 1975, Advances in child development and behavior.

[97]  B. Knowlton,et al.  Learning and memory functions of the Basal Ganglia. , 2002, Annual review of neuroscience.

[98]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Frame of Reference Effects on Scientific Visualization Subtasks , 1998, Hum. Factors.

[99]  Paul Green,et al.  TIMING OF AUDITORY ROUTE-GUIDANCE INSTRUCTIONS , 1996 .

[100]  Sabine Timpf,et al.  Granularity transformations in wayfinding , 2003 .

[101]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  The Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking: Functional Significance of Visuospatial Representations , 2005 .

[102]  M. Sholl.  Cognitive maps as orienting schemata. , 1987, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[103]  Alfred Bork,et al.  Multimedia in Learning , 2001 .

[104]  Tad T. Brunyé,et al.  Learning Procedures: The Role of Working Memory in Multimedia Learning Experiences , 2022 .

[105]  T. McNamara,et al.  Spatial and temporal contributions to the structure of spatial memory. , 1992, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[106]  Neville Moray,et al.  A Taxonomy and Theory of Mental Models , 1996 .

[107]  R. Mayer,et al.  Multimedia Learning: The Promise of Multimedia Learning , 2001 .

[108]  W S Maki,et al.  Processing locational and orientational information , 1977, Memory & cognition.

[109]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  The Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking: Design Applications of Visual Spatial Thinking: The Importance of Frame of Reference , 2005 .

[110]  Reginald G. Golledge,et al.  Place recognition and wayfinding: Making sense of space , 1992 .

[111]  H. Taylor,et al.  Goal-specific influences on the representation of spatial perspective , 1999, Memory & cognition.

[112]  William Allen,et al.  Instructional media research: Past, present, and future , 1971 .

[113]  J. Peeck,et al.  Chapter 17 Enhancing Graphic-Effects in Instructional Texts: Influencing Learning Activities , 1994 .

[114]  R. E. Dewar.  In-vehicle information and driver overload , 1988 .

[115]  E. Maguire,et al.  London taxi drivers and bus drivers: A structural MRI and neuropsychological analysis , 2006, Hippocampus.

[116]  F P McKenna,et al.  Dual displays , 2000, Ergonomics.

[117]  W. Howard Levie,et al.  Effects of text illustrations: A review of research , 1982 .

[118]  D. R. Montello,et al.  Remembering Changes in Direction , 1989 .

[119]  M. D’Esposito,et al.  Topographical disorientation: a synthesis and taxonomy. , 1999, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[120]  Michel Denis,et al.  Testing the Value of Route Directions Through Navigational Performance , 2003, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[121]  Ehren L. Newman,et al.  Learning your way around town: How virtual taxicab drivers learn to use both layout and landmark information , 2007, Cognition.

[122]  Gary L. Allen,et al.  Applied Spatial Cognition: From Research to Cognitive Technology , 2007 .

[123]  Caroline G. L. Cao,et al.  Disorientation in Minimal Access Surgery: A Case Study , 2000 .

[124]  Avi Parush,et al.  Degradation in Spatial Knowledge Acquisition When Using Automatic Navigation Systems , 2007, COSIT.

[125]  S. Dumais,et al.  Handbook of applied cognition , 2007 .

[126]  E. Tolman.  Cognitive maps in rats and men. , 1948, Psychological review.

[127]  Tad T. Brunyé,et al.  When goals constrain: Eye movements and memory for goal‐Oriented map study , 2009 .

[128]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[129]  Hendrik A. H. C. van Veen,et al.  Waypoint navigation with a vibrotactile waist belt , 2005, TAP.

[130]  E. Thorndike.  The laws of learning in animals. , 2022 .

[131]  E. Tolman,et al.  Studies in spatial learning; place learning versus response learning. , 1946, Journal of experimental psychology.

[132]  Christopher Nowakowski,et al.  Turn-by-Turn Displays versus Electronic Maps: An On-the-Road Comparison of Driver Glance Behavior , 1999 .

[133]  N. Newcombe,et al.  Barrier effects in the cognitive maps of children and adults. , 1982, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[134]  A. Wetherell.  Short-Term Memory for Verbal and Graphic Route Information , 1979 .

[135]  Desney S. Tan,et al.  Physically large displays improve path integration in 3D virtual navigation tasks , 2004, CHI '04.

[136]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Situation Awareness and Workload in Aviation , 2002 .

[137]  Juval Portugali,et al.  Implicate Relations: Society and Space in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict , 1992 .

[138]  Francesca Pazzaglia,et al.  Perspective, Instruction, and Cognitive Style in Spatial Representation of a Virtual Environment , 2007, Spatial Cogn. Comput..

[139]  Stephen C. Hirtle,et al.  Is spatial information imprecise or just coarsely coded , 1993 .

[140]  永福 智志.  The Organization of Learning , 2005, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[141]  W. Kintsch,et al.  Strategies of discourse comprehension , 1983 .

[142]  Caroline G. L. Cao.  Designing for Spatial Orientation in Endoscopic Environments , 2001 .

[143]  Anthony E. Richardson,et al.  Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning , 2006 .

[144]  Matthijs L. Noordzij,et al.  The influence of visual experience on the ability to form spatial mental models based on route and survey descriptions , 2006, Cognition.

[145]  Tyler T Prevett,et al.  Exploring the dimensions of egocentricity in aircraft navigation displays , 1995 .

[146]  M. Denis.  The description of routes : A cognitive approach to the production of spatial discourse , 1997 .

[147]  N. J. Slamecka,et al.  The Generation Effect: Delineation of a Phenomenon , 1978 .

[148]  T. Gladwin.  East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll , 1972 .

[149]  Gerard Hanley,et al.  The Placement and Misplacement of You-Are-Here Maps , 1984 .

[150]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Two- and Three-Dimensional Displays for Aviation: A Theoretical and Empirical Comparison , 1993 .

[151]  Stephen C. Hirtle,et al.  Designing a Multi-modal Tool for Locating Buildings on a College Campus , 1998 .

[152]  P. Dudchenko.  The hippocampus as a cognitive map , 2010 .

[153]  T. McNamara,et al.  Subjective hierarchies in spatial memory. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[154]  E. H. Cornell,et al.  Characteristics of Travel by Persons Lost in Albertan Wilderness Areas , 1998 .

[155]  Omer Tsimhoni,et al.  Common Automotive Navigation System Usability Problems and a Standard Test Protocol to Identify Them , 2003 .

[156]  S S Fukusima,et al.  Visual perception of egocentric distance as assessed by triangulation. , 1997, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[157]  P. Andersen,et al.  Spatial learning impairment parallels the magnitude of dorsal hippocampal lesions, but is hardly present following ventral lesions , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[158]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  Recalling Routes around London: Activation of the Right Hippocampus in Taxi Drivers , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[159]  Harvey J. Miller,et al.  Geographic Information Science: Third International Conference, GI Science 2004 Adelphi, MD, USA, October 20-23, 2004 Proceedings (Lecture Notes in Computer Science) , 2004 .

[160]  Denis Besnard,et al.  Cognitive mismatches in the cockpit: will they ever be a thing of the past? , 2007, Applied ergonomics.

[161]  Francesca Pazzaglia,et al.  The role of mental rotation and age in spatial perspective-taking tasks: when age does not impair perspective-taking performance , 2006 .

[162]  Neil Burgess,et al.  Navigation expertise and the human hippocampus: A structural brain imaging analysis , 2003, Hippocampus.

[163]  James Knierim,et al.  Faculty Opinions recommendation of The well-worn route and the path less traveled: distinct neural bases of route following and wayfinding in humans. , 2003 .

[164]  T. McNamara.  Memory's view of space , 1991 .

[165]  Werner Kuhn,et al.  Spatial Information Theory. Foundations of Geographic Information Science , 2003, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[166]  Gabriel A. Radvansky,et al.  Mental Organization of Maps , 1998 .

[167]  Guy A. Boy.  Operator Assistant Systems , 1987, Int. J. Man Mach. Stud..

[168]  Bernhard Schölkopf,et al.  View-Based Cognitive Mapping and Path Planning , 1995, Adapt. Behav..

[169]  Michelle A. Vincow,et al.  Navigation in Electronic Worlds Workshop Report , 1997 .

[170]  M. Schober,et al.  Does conversational interviewing reduce survey measurement error?. Public opinion quarterly, . , 1997 .

[171]  Andrew U. Frank.  Pragmatic Information Content‚ÄîHow to Measure the Information in a Route Description , 2003, Foundations of Geographic Information Science.

[172]  P. Johnson-Laird,et al.  Models of Visuospatial Cognition , 1996 .

[173]  Frederick G. Conrad,et al.  Does Conversational Interviewing Reduce Survey Measurement Error , 1997 .

[174]  J. L. Gould.  The Locale Map of Honey Bees: Do Insects Have Cognitive Maps? , 1986, Science.

[175]  S. A. Wilson.  AN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH INTO THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORPUS STRIATUM , 1914 .

[176]  H. Foley,et al.  Source-monitoring judgments about anagrams and their solutions: Evidence for the role of cognitive operations information in memory , 2007, Memory & cognition.

[177]  Charles E. Billings,et al.  Aviation Automation: The Search for A Human-centered Approach , 1996 .

[178]  Richard A. Chechile,et al.  “Aha” effects in the generation of pictures , 2000, Memory & cognition.

[179]  William H Warren,et al.  Do humans integrate routes into a cognitive map? Map- versus landmark-based navigation of novel shortcuts. , 2010, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[180]  Barbara Hayes-Roth,et al.  Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation , 1982, Cognitive Psychology.

[181]  M. D’Esposito.  Working memory. , 2008, Handbook of clinical neurology.

[183]  M. Hegarty,et al.  Spatial ability, experience, and skill in laparoscopic surgery. , 2004, American journal of surgery.

[184]  Robert Wood,et al.  Head-Up Displays , 2000 .

[185]  B. Tversky,et al.  Spatial mental models derived from survey and route descriptions , 1992 .

[186]  R. French.  LAND VEHICLE NAVIGATION : A WORLDWIDE PERSPECTIVE , 1990 .

[187]  John Uhlarik,et al.  A Review of Situation Awareness Literature Relevant to Pilot Surveillance Functions , 2002 .

[188]  F. Craik,et al.  The Oxford handbook of memory , 2006 .

[189]  Simon Folkard,et al.  Searching for signs, symbols, and icons: effects of time of day, visual complexity, and grouping. , 2006, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[190]  C. F. Kao,et al.  The efficient assessment of need for cognition. , 1984, Journal of personality assessment.

[191]  Ben Shneiderman,et al.  The eyes have it: a task by data type taxonomy for information visualizations , 1996, Proceedings 1996 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages.

[192]  F. C. Ladd.  Black Youths View Their Environment , 1970 .

[193]  Anthony J. Aretz.  The Design of Electronic Map Displays , 1991 .

[194]  Syed G. Shah,et al.  Magnetic imaging of colonoscopy: an audit of looping, accuracy and ancillary maneuvers. , 2000, Gastrointestinal endoscopy.

[195]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Tactical Displays for Combat Awareness: An Examination of Dimensionality and Frame of Reference Concepts and the Application of Cognitive Engineering , 2000 .

[196]  Alan Stevens,et al.  A SAFETY CHECKLIST FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF IN-VEHICLE INFORMATION SYSTEMS , 1999 .

[197]  Gabriele Janzen,et al.  Memory for object location and route direction in virtual large-scale space , 2006, Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[198]  Eleanor A. Maguire,et al.  Thoughts, behaviour, and brain dynamics during navigation in the real world , 2006, NeuroImage.

[199]  D. R. Montello,et al.  Learning a Spatial Skill for Surgery : How the Contributions of Abilities Change With Practice , 2006 .

[200]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Frames of reference for helicopter electronic maps - The relevance of spatial cognition and componential analysis , 1991 .

[201]  A. Postma,et al.  The influence of intentional and incidental learning on acquiring spatial knowledge during navigation , 2006, Psychological research.

[202]  Stephen J. Morrissey,et al.  Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics , 2008 .

[203]  A. Baddeley.  Is working memory still working? , 2001, The American psychologist.

[204]  P. Johnson-Laird,et al.  The mental representation of spatial descriptions , 1982, Memory & cognition.

[205]  C. Cao,et al.  Guiding navigation in colonoscopy , 2007, Surgical Endoscopy.

[206]  Stephen M. Casner,et al.  The Effects of GPS and Moving Map Displays on Pilot Navigational Awareness While Flying Under VFR , 2007 .

[207]  J. Jonides,et al.  Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps , 1985, Memory & cognition.

[208]  R. Klatzky,et al.  Assessing auditory distance perception using perceptually directed action , 1998, Perception & psychophysics.

[209]  Holly A. Taylor,et al.  How do you get there from here? Mental representations of route descriptions , 1999 .

[210]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  Cognitive Maps, Cognitive Collages, and Spatial Mental Models , 1993, COSIT.

[211]  Holly A Taylor,et al.  Social influences on spatial memory , 2008, Memory & cognition.

[212]  R. Kozma.  Learning with Media , 1991 .

[213]  Holly A. Taylorandbarbaratversky.  Spatial Mental Models Derived from Survey and Route Descriptions , 1992 .

[214]  C. L. Hull,et al.  "Correction" vs. "non-correction" method of trial-and-error learning in rats. , 1938 .

[215]  K. Abbott,et al.  The interfaces between flightcrews and modern flight deck systems , 1996 .

[216]  R W Webster,et al.  A virtual reality surgical trainer for navigation in laparoscopic surgery. , 2001, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[217]  Holly A. Taylor,et al.  The Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking: Mapping the Understanding of Understanding Maps , 2005 .

[218]  Albert Postma,et al.  Categorical and metric distance information in mental representations derived from route and survey descriptions , 2005, Psychological research.

[219]  Chiara Meneghetti,et al.  Visuospatial working memory and mental representation of spatial descriptions , 2005 .