From Central Places to Network Bases: A Transition in the U.S. Urban Hierarchy, 1900–2000

The notion of a hierarchy among cities has long been part of the theoretical tool kit of urban sociologists, geographers, and economists. Reviewing the evolution of the urban hierarchy concept, this paper empirically demonstrates a hypothesized transition in the U.S. urban hierarchy during the twentieth century, from size based to network based. Three urban types, following distinct trajectories during this shift, are explored: the primate city, the offline metropolis, and the wired town. Data on the economic structure, population size, and airline passenger traffic of 64 U.S. metropolitan areas from 1900 to 2000 are used to test the hypothesis of a hierarchical transition. Results suggest that a size–based hierarchy dominated in the early twentieth century but was replaced or augmented in the mid–1940s with a network–based hierarchy. The paper concludes with a discussion of the study's limitations and directions for future research. De los lugares centrales a las redes: La transición en la jerarquía urbana de los Estados Unidos desde 1900 hasta el 2000 (Zachary P. Neal) Resumen La noción de jerarquía urbana ha sido utilizada por mucho tiempo como parte del instrumental teórico de la sociología urbana, la geografía y la economía. Este artículo demuestra empíricamente la transición ocurrida en la jerarquía urbana de los Estados Unidos durante el siglo XX en que se pasó de una jerarquía basada en el tamaño de las ciudades a otra basada en las redes. Se abordan tres tipos urbanos que siguieron trayectorias distintas durante dicha transición: el modelo de primacía urbana, el modelo de la metrópolis autónoma y el modelo de la ciudad conectada. Para comprobar esta hipótesis de una transición en el tipo de jerarquía urbana, se hace uso de datos sobre estructura económica, población y tráfico aéreo de pasajeros de 64 áreas metropolitanas estadounidenses en el período 1900 – 2000. Los resultados indican que la jerarquía urbana basada en el tamaño fue el modelo dominante a principios del siglo XX pero fue reemplazada o aumentada a mediados de los años 40 con una jerarquía basada en redes. La conclusión del artículo incluye una discusión de las limitaciones del estudio y posibilidades para investigaciones futuras.

[1]  R. E. Preston The Structure of Central Place Systems , 1971 .

[2]  Charles Moles,et al.  FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation. Calendar Year 1976 , 1976 .

[3]  R. Dickinson The Metropolitan Regions of the United States , 1934 .

[4]  Jonathan V. Beaverstock,et al.  A roster of world cities , 1999 .

[5]  O. D. Duncan,et al.  Social Characteristics of Urban and Rural Communities. , 1957 .

[6]  E. Meijers FROM CENTRAL PLACE TO NETWORK MODEL: THEORY AND EVIDENCE OF A PARADIGM CHANGE , 2007 .

[7]  J. Friedmann The World City Hypothesis , 1986 .

[8]  R. Mckenzie,et al.  The Metropolitan Community. , 1933 .

[9]  David F. Batten,et al.  Network Cities: Creative Urban Agglomerations for the 21st Century , 1995 .

[10]  M. Conzen A transport interpretation of the growth of urban regions: an American example , 1975 .

[11]  S. Ruggles Integrated Public Use Microdata Series , 2021, Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging.

[12]  M. Conzen THE MATURING URBAN SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES, 1840–1910* , 1977 .

[13]  L. Freeman Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification , 1978 .

[14]  Anthony S. Bryk,et al.  Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods , 1992 .

[15]  H. Winsborough Occupational Composition and the Urban Hierarchy , 1960 .

[16]  M. Castells The rise of the network society , 1996 .

[17]  David Fasenfest,et al.  New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: America's Global Cities , 1999 .

[18]  William Applebaum,et al.  The merchant's world , 1970 .

[19]  S. Sassen The Global City , 1992 .

[20]  Michael Hoyler,et al.  External Urban Relational Process: Introducing Central Flow Theory to Complement Central Place Theory , 2010 .

[21]  Vladimir Batagelj,et al.  Centrality in Social Networks , 1993 .

[22]  R. Mckenzie The Concept of Dominance and World-Organization , 1927, American Journal of Sociology.

[23]  A. Esparza,et al.  Producer Services Trade in City Systems: Evidence from Chicago , 1994 .

[24]  Christopher O. Ross Organizational dimensions of metropolitan dominance: prominence in the network of corporate control 1955-1975. , 1987 .

[25]  Amos H. Hawley,et al.  The Economics of Location. , 1955 .

[26]  W. Reilly Methods for the study of retail relationships , 2022 .

[27]  S. Lieberson,et al.  Metropolis and region in transition , 1970 .

[28]  John Friedmann,et al.  World city formation: an agenda for research and action , 1982 .

[29]  J. Lincoln The urban distribution of headquarters and branch plants in manufacturing: Mechanisms of metropolitan dominance , 1978, Demography.

[30]  E. J. Taaffe,et al.  The Urban Hierarchy: An Air Passenger Definition , 1962 .

[31]  P. Taylor Leading World Cities: Empirical Evaluations of Urban Nodes in Multiple Networks , 2005 .

[32]  George Kingsley Zipf,et al.  National Unity and Disunity , 1943 .

[33]  Roberto Camagni,et al.  FROM CITY HIERARCHY TO CITY NETWORK: REFLECTIONS ABOUT AN EMERGING PARADIGM , 1993 .

[34]  A. Robert,et al.  James E. Vance Jr. The merchant's world : the geography of wholesaling. Englewood Cliffs (NJ), Prentice Hall, Foundations of Economic Geography Series, 1970 , 1972 .

[35]  James O. Wheeler,et al.  The Flow of Information in a Global Economy: The Role of the American Urban System in 1990 , 1994 .

[36]  Carl W. Condit,et al.  Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West , 1991 .

[37]  David R. Meyer Control and Coordination Links in the Metropolitan System of Cities: The South as Case Study , 1984 .

[38]  Timothy J. Fik,et al.  Changes in Air Service Connectivity and Employment , 1995 .

[39]  Walter Christaller Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland , 1980 .

[40]  E. Ullman,et al.  A Theory of Location for Cities , 1941, American Journal of Sociology.

[41]  William L. Garrison,et al.  A Note on Central Place Theory and the Range of a Good , 1958 .

[42]  A. Alderson,et al.  Power and Position in the World City System1 , 2004, American Journal of Sociology.

[43]  Denise Pumain Urban networks versus urban hierarchies , 1992 .

[44]  Roberta Capello,et al.  The City Network Paradigm: Measuring Urban Network Externalities , 2000 .

[45]  W. P. Frisbie,et al.  Metropolitan Function and Interdependence in the U.S. Urban System , 1982 .

[46]  Mark Jefferson,et al.  The Law of the Primate City , 1939 .

[47]  Ronald L. Mitchelson,et al.  Information Flows among Major Metropolitan Areas in the United States , 1989 .

[48]  John Rennie Short Black Holes and Loose Connections in a Global Urban Network , 2002, The Professional Geographer.

[49]  Peter J. Taylor,et al.  World Cities in a World System , 1995 .

[50]  Zachary P. Neal,et al.  Refining the Air Traffic Approach to City Networks , 2010 .

[51]  K. Morgan The Exaggerated Death of Geography , 2004, Geography.

[52]  Kathy Pain,et al.  The Polycentric Metropolis: Learning from Mega-City Regions in Europe , 2009 .

[53]  J. Gill Hierarchical Linear Models , 2005 .

[54]  David A. Smith,et al.  World City Networks and Hierarchies, 1977-1997 , 2001 .

[55]  D. Batten,et al.  Europe’s Hierarchical Network Economy , 1995 .

[56]  David J. Keeling,et al.  World cities in a world-system: Transport and the world city paradigm , 1995 .

[57]  Peter Hall,et al.  The global city , 2010 .

[58]  William L. Garrison,et al.  The Functional Bases of the Central Place Hierarchy , 1958 .

[59]  A. Edwards Alphabetical index of occupations and industries , 1940 .

[60]  Martin Dijst,et al.  Ranking functional urban regions : a comparison of interaction and node attribute data , 2007 .

[61]  Otis Dudley Duncan,et al.  Metropolis And Region , 1983 .

[62]  J R Blau,et al.  Empowering nets of participation. , 1982, Administrative science quarterly.

[63]  Brian J. L. Berry,et al.  CENTRAL PLACE STUDIES. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THEORY AND APPLICATIONS , 1962 .

[64]  D. Lyons,et al.  World cities in a world-system: World cities, multinational corporations, and urban hierarchy: the case of the United States , 1995 .

[65]  O. Galle,et al.  The Metropolitan System in the South: Functional Differentiation and Trade Patterns , 1984 .

[66]  David A. Smith,et al.  World cities in a world-system: Cities in global matrices: toward mapping the world-system's city system , 1995 .

[67]  Ed Brown,et al.  Beyond world cities: Central America in a global space of flows , 2002 .

[68]  Edward J. Taaffe Air Transportation and United States Urban Distribution , 1956 .

[69]  John Rennie Short,et al.  The Dirty Little Secret of World Cities Research: Data Problems in Comparative Analysis , 1996 .

[70]  A. Pred,et al.  Urban growth and the circulation of information : the United States system of cities, 1790-1840 , 1973 .

[71]  N. Mantel The detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach. , 1967, Cancer research.

[72]  Zachary P. Neal,et al.  The duality of world cities and firms: comparing networks, hierarchies, and inequalities in the global economy , 2007 .

[73]  W. Garrison CONNECTIVITY OF THE INTERSTATE HIGHWAY SYSTEM , 2005 .

[74]  John D. Kasarda,et al.  AIR PASSENGER LINKAGES AND EMPLOYMENT GROWTH IN U.S. METROPOLITAN AREAS , 1991 .

[75]  M. Conzen Capital Flows and the Developing Urban Hierarchy: State Bank Capital in Wisconsin, 1854-1895 , 1975 .

[76]  Marie-Hélène Masson,et al.  Recovery of the metric structure of a pattern of points using minimal information , 2001, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part A.

[77]  Gordon F. Mulligan,et al.  Agglomeration and Central Place Theory: A Review of the Literature , 1984 .