An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling.

Over the last 60 years plastics production has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightweight nature. These characteristics have raised the demand for plastic materials that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials production, comes increased plastic material wastage creating a number of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasising on the various chemical substances (known as "additives") contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclates. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.

[1]  J. Samsonek,et al.  Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in black thermo cups and selected kitchen utensils purchased on the European market , 2013, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[2]  H. Neels,et al.  Downsides of the recycling process: harmful organic chemicals in children's toys. , 2014, Environment international.

[3]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife , 2009, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[4]  S. Lacorte,et al.  Migration of phthalates, alkylphenols, bisphenol A and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate from food packaging , 2012 .

[5]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. , 2014, Environmental pollution.

[6]  Albert A Koelmans,et al.  Plastic as a carrier of POPs to aquatic organisms: a model analysis. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[7]  C. Velis Global recycling markets: plastic waste: A story for one player – China. A report from the ISWA Task Force on Globalisation and Waste Management , 2017 .

[8]  C. Moore Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. , 2008, Environmental research.

[9]  홍성일,et al.  ACRYLONITRILE , 1982, The Lancet.

[10]  P. Lalonde,et al.  Migration of bisphenol A from plastic baby bottles, baby bottle liners and reusable polycarbonate drinking bottles , 2009, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[11]  C. Nerín,et al.  A GC/MS Method for Determining UV Stabilizers in Polyethyleneterephthalate Bottles , 1998 .

[12]  Masanari Otsuka,et al.  Multi-trace element levels and arsenic speciation in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Accra in Ghana. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[13]  Shinsuke Tanabe,et al.  Release of chlorinated, brominated and mixed halogenated dioxin-related compounds to soils from open burning of e-waste in Agbogbloshie (Accra, Ghana). , 2016, Journal of hazardous materials.

[14]  J. Petersen,et al.  PVC cling film in contact with cheese: health aspects related to global migration and specific migration of DEHA. , 1995, Food additives and contaminants.

[15]  Roy Brouwer,et al.  The social costs of marine litter along European coasts , 2017 .

[16]  Y. Sugita‐Konishi,et al.  Migration of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde into mineral water in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles , 2006, Food additives and contaminants.

[17]  A. Lappas,et al.  Chemical recycling of plastic wastes made from polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) and polypropylene (PP). , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[18]  M. Biedermann,et al.  Testing migration from the PVC gaskets in metal closures into oily foods , 2008 .

[19]  T. Begley,et al.  Determination of migrants in and migration from nylon food packaging. , 1995, Food additives and contaminants.

[20]  N. Zeng,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soils, sediments, and human hair in a plastic waste recycling area: a neglected heavily polluted area. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  Anthony L. Andrady,et al.  Plastics in the Marine Environment , 2005 .

[22]  Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud,et al.  Energy recovery from pyrolysis of plastic waste: Study on non-recycled plastics (NRP) data as the real measure of plastic waste , 2017 .

[23]  G. G. Stokes "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[24]  Liang Tao,et al.  Pollution characteristics of volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate esters emitted from plastic wastes recycling granulation plants in Xingtan Town, South China , 2013 .

[25]  P. Gai,et al.  GC/MS method for the determination of adipate plasticizers in ham sausage and its application to kinetic and penetration studies. , 2009, Journal of food science.

[26]  J. Millward-Hopkins,et al.  A pathway to circular economy: Developing a conceptual framework for complex value assessment of resources recovered from waste , 2017 .

[27]  Bj Benny Luijsterburg,et al.  Assessment of plastic packaging waste : material origin, methods, properties , 2014 .

[28]  Shin Takahashi,et al.  Dioxin-related compounds in breast milk of women from Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites: levels, toxic equivalents and relevance of non-dietary exposure. , 2014, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[29]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L). , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[30]  M. Ghazi-Khansari,et al.  Determination of migration monomer styrene from GPPS (general purpose polystyrene) and HIPS (high impact polystyrene) cups to hot drinks , 2009, Toxicology mechanisms and methods.

[31]  J. Huff,et al.  Clarifying carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene. , 2010, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[32]  M. Xanthos Recycling of the #5 Polymer , 2012, Science.

[33]  R. Oréfice,et al.  Evaluation of the effect of reprocessing on the structure and properties of low density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch blends. , 2016, Carbohydrate polymers.

[34]  Yun Wei,et al.  Determination of polymer additives-antioxidants and ultraviolet (UV) absorbers by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with UV photodiode array detection in food simulants. , 2011, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[35]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Transport of persistent organic pollutants by microplastics in estuarine conditions , 2014 .

[36]  P. Soudant,et al.  Occurrence and effects of plastic additives on marine environments and organisms: A review. , 2017, Chemosphere.

[37]  J. Baeyens,et al.  Recycling and recovery routes of plastic solid waste (PSW): a review. , 2009, Waste management.

[38]  H. Soto‐Valdez,et al.  Effect of heat processing and storage time on migration of bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol A-diglycidyl ether (BADGE) to aqueous food simulant from Mexican can coatings. , 2001, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[39]  M. Kontominas,et al.  Effect of microwave heating on the migration of dioctyladipate and acetyltributylcitrate plasticizers from food-grade PVC and PVDC/PVC films into olive oil and water , 1996 .

[40]  Juming Tang,et al.  Migration of Chemical Compounds from Packaging Polymers during Microwave, Conventional Heat Treatment, and Storage. , 2013, Comprehensive reviews in food science and food safety.

[41]  G. Robertson Food Packaging: Principles and Practice , 1992 .

[42]  I. Cooper,et al.  Migration studies on fatty acid amide slip additives from plastics into food simulants. , 1995, Food additives and contaminants.

[43]  S M Al-Salem,et al.  A review on thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic solid waste (PSW). , 2017, Journal of environmental management.

[44]  Mohamad G. Abiad,et al.  Bisphenol A exposure assessment from olive oil consumption , 2017, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

[45]  T Kaminuma,et al.  Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. , 2001, Environmental science & technology.

[46]  Eric Masanet,et al.  An overview of plastic recycling in Rio de Janeiro , 2012 .

[47]  M. Gregory Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings—entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions , 2009, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[48]  A. Goodson,et al.  Migration of bisphenol A from can coatings—effects of damage, storage conditions and heating , 2004, Food additives and contaminants.

[49]  Antal Boldizar,et al.  An analysis of the composition and metal contamination of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). , 2013, Waste management.

[50]  H. Park,et al.  Antioxidants and their migration into food simulants on irradiated LLDPE film , 2007 .

[51]  I. Arvanitoyannis,et al.  Migration of Substances from Food Packaging Materials to Foods , 2004, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[52]  M. Hakkarainen,et al.  Microwave heating causes rapid degradation of antioxidants in polypropylene packaging, leading to greatly increased specific migration to food simulants as shown by ESI-MS and GC-MS. , 2011, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[53]  K. Pivnenkoa,et al.  Recycling of plastic waste: Presence of phthalates in plastics from households and industry , 2017 .

[54]  S. Wacharawichanant,et al.  Thermo- and Photo-Degradation of LDPE and PP Films Using Metal Oxides as Catalysts , 2010 .

[55]  N. Kalogerakis,et al.  Microplastics Generation: Onset of Fragmentation of Polyethylene Films in Marine Environment Mesocosms , 2017, Front. Mar. Sci..

[56]  Anthony L Andrady,et al.  Applications and societal benefits of plastics , 2009, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[57]  Dong Wang,et al.  Compatibilization and morphology development of immiscible ternary polymer blends , 2011 .

[58]  Delilah Lithner,et al.  Environmental and health hazards of chemicals in plastic polymers and products , 2011 .

[59]  M. Rose,et al.  4-Nonylphenol (NP) in food-contact materials: Analytical methodology and occurrence , 2008, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[60]  Guiying Li,et al.  Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds emitted from different plastic solid waste recycling workshops. , 2015, Environment international.

[61]  Paul H Brunner,et al.  Recycling and resource efficiency: it is time for a change from quantity to quality , 2013, Waste management & research : the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA.

[62]  X. Bi,et al.  The relationship between magnetic parameters and heavy metal contents of indoor dust in e-waste recycling impacted area, Southeast China. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[63]  Man-Goo Kim,et al.  Bisphenol A migration from polycarbonate baby bottle with repeated use. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[64]  Yuwen Wang,et al.  Contamination and risk of heavy metals in soils and sediments from a typical plastic waste recycling area in North China. , 2015, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[65]  Minna Hakkarainen,et al.  Type of Polypropylene Material Significantly Influences the Migration of Antioxidants from Polymer Packaging to Food Simulants During Microwave Heating , 2010 .

[66]  Qingbin Song,et al.  Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: a systematic review. , 2014, Waste management.

[67]  L. Lillemark,et al.  Migration from PVC cling films compared with their field of application. , 1997, Food additives and contaminants.

[68]  S. Weisberg,et al.  A comparison of plastic and plankton in the north Pacific central gyre. , 2001, Marine pollution bulletin.

[69]  Mitchel Lowe Energy From Waste; A guide to the debate , 2017 .

[70]  A. Ravve,et al.  Principles of Polymer Chemistry , 1995 .

[71]  R Weber,et al.  Inventory and substance flow analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Nigerian transport sector—end-of-life vehicles policy and management , 2018, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[72]  H. Neels,et al.  Intake of bisphenol A from canned beverages and foods on the Belgian market , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[73]  M. Hakkarainen,et al.  Migration from polycarbonate packaging to food simulants during microwave heating , 2012 .

[74]  Fumihiko Jitsunari,et al.  Migration of styrene monomer, dimers and trimers from polystyrene to food simulants , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[75]  F. Reyes,et al.  Plasticizers in Brazilian food-packaging materials acquired on the retail market , 2006, Food additives and contaminants.

[76]  O. Lau,et al.  Contamination in food from packaging material. , 2000, Journal of chromatography. A.

[77]  Lyn Denison,et al.  Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants , 2013 .

[78]  M. J. Galotto,et al.  Suitability of alternative fatty food simulants to study the effect of thermal and microwave heating on overall migration of plastic packaging , 2004 .

[79]  F. Olea-Serrano,et al.  Estrogenicity of resin-based composites and sealants used in dentistry. , 1996, Environmental health perspectives.

[80]  H. Zamith,et al.  Migration of ɛ-caprolactam residues in packaging intended for contact with fatty foods , 2011 .

[81]  M. Marı́n,et al.  Determination of adipate plasticizers in poly(vinyl chloride) by microwave-assisted extraction. , 2002, Journal of chromatography. A.

[82]  Olivier Jolliet,et al.  Life cycle assessment of end-of-life options for two biodegradable packaging materials: sound application of the European waste hierarchy , 2015 .

[83]  I. Skjevrak,et al.  Volatile organic components migrating from plastic pipes (HDPE, PEX and PVC) into drinking water. , 2003, Water research.

[84]  A. Huyghebaert,et al.  Polystyrene cups and containers: styrene migration. , 1998, Food additives and contaminants.

[85]  M. J. Galotto,et al.  Experimental and theoretical study of LDPE: Evaluation of different food simulants and temperatures , 2011 .

[86]  S. Pastorelli,et al.  Time‐ and temperature‐dependent migration studies of Irganox 1076 from plastics into foods and food simulants , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[87]  David Santillo,et al.  Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil, sediment and dust samples collected from various electronic waste recycling sites within Guiyu town, southern China. , 2013, Environmental science. Processes & impacts.

[88]  Bin Li,et al.  Association between lung function in school children and exposure to three transition metals from an e-waste recycling area , 2013, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[89]  Laura N. Vandenberg,et al.  Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses. , 2012, Endocrine reviews.

[90]  D. Atek,et al.  Interactions between poly(vinyl chloride) stabilised with epoxidised sunflower oil and food simulants , 2006 .

[91]  T. Richardson Industrial plastics: theory and application , 1989 .

[92]  Alba Torrents,et al.  Migration of nonylphenol from plastic containers to water and a milk surrogate. , 2004, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[93]  A. Paraskevopoulou,et al.  Migration of styrene from plastic packaging based on polystyrene into food simulants , 2012 .

[94]  S. Sablani,et al.  Food Packaging Interaction , 2007 .

[95]  E. Balestri,et al.  Biodegradable plastic bags on the seafloor: A future threat for seagrass meadows? , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[96]  Atsushi Tanimura,et al.  Floating plastic in the Kuroshio Current area, western North Pacific Ocean. , 2007, Marine pollution bulletin.

[97]  Guoying Sheng,et al.  The major components of particles emitted during recycling of waste printed circuit boards in a typical e-waste workshop of South China , 2010 .

[98]  Martin Thiel,et al.  Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): a study supported by a citizen science project. , 2013, Marine environmental research.

[99]  M. H. Irfan,et al.  Chemistry of polymers , 1998 .

[100]  Gan Zhang,et al.  Heavy metal contamination in soils and vegetables near an e-waste processing site, South China. , 2011, Journal of hazardous materials.

[101]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic? , 2004, Science.

[102]  J. M. López-Vilariño,et al.  Determination of antioxidant migration levels from low-density polyethylene films into food simulants. , 2003, Journal of chromatography. A.

[103]  A A Koelmans,et al.  Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.) , 2012, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[104]  Weber Roland,et al.  E-WASTE RECYCLING HEAVILY CONTAMINATES A CHINESE CITY WITH CHLORINATED, BROMINATED AND MIXED HALOGENATED DIOXINS , 2008 .

[105]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment. , 2010, Marine pollution bulletin.

[106]  C. Hopmann,et al.  Influence of recycling of poly(lactic acid) on packaging relevant properties , 2014 .

[107]  P. Kershaw Marine plastic debris and microplastics – Global lessons and research to inspire action and guide policy change , 2016 .

[108]  F. Puype,et al.  Evidence of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) relevant substances in polymeric food-contact articles sold on the European market , 2015, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[109]  Xiaojun Luo,et al.  Measurement and human exposure assessment of brominated flame retardants in household products from South China. , 2010, Journal of hazardous materials.

[110]  R. Auras,et al.  Evaluation of biodegradation-promoting additives for plastics. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[111]  M. Wilhelm,et al.  High levels of PAH-metabolites in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Ghana. , 2014, The Science of the total environment.

[112]  Yuwen Wang,et al.  Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and heavy metals in road dusts from a plastic waste recycling area in north China: implications for human health , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[113]  M. Al-Malack Migration of lead from unplasticized polyvinyl chloride pipes. , 2001, Journal of hazardous materials.

[114]  Roland Weber,et al.  Relevance of BFRs and thermal conditions on the formation pathways of brominated and brominated-chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans. , 2003, Environment international.

[115]  J. Yonekubo,et al.  Bisphenol A (BPA) and its source in foods in Japanese markets , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[116]  A. M. El-hadi The Effect of Additives Interaction on the Miscibility and Crystal Structure of Two Immiscible Biodegradable Polymers , 2014 .

[117]  N. Poovarodom,et al.  Effects of microwave heating on the migration of substances from melamine formaldehyde tableware , 2014, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[118]  Lei Liu,et al.  Study on adverse impact of e-waste disassembly on surface sediment in East China by chemical analysis and bioassays , 2010 .

[119]  W. Grigsby,et al.  Modifying biodegradable plastics with additives based on condensed tannin esters , 2014 .

[120]  Robert E. Dvorak,et al.  Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities , 2009, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[121]  Zhenming Xu,et al.  Assessment of noise and heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb) in the ambience of the production line for recycling waste printed circuit boards. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[122]  Changfeng Ge,et al.  Effect of Microwave Heating on The Migration of Additives From PS, PP and PET Container Into Food Simulants , 2014 .

[123]  L. Castle,et al.  A Critical Comparison of Four Test Methods for Determining Overall and Specific Migration from Microwave Susceptor Packaging. , 1996, Journal of food protection.

[124]  Ellen Besseling,et al.  Effects of microplastic on fitness and PCB bioaccumulation by the lugworm Arenicola marina (L.). , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[125]  Fu Gu,et al.  From waste plastics to industrial raw materials: A life cycle assessment of mechanical plastic recycling practice based on a real-world case study. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[126]  Mercedes Hortal,et al.  Environmental profile of a bio-based and biodegradable foamed packaging prototype in comparison with the current benchmark , 2015 .

[127]  S. Lim,et al.  Toughening of polylactide by melt blending with linear low‐density polyethylene , 2003 .

[128]  M. Kontominas,et al.  Migration of di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate and acetyltributyl citrate plasticizers from food-grade PVC film into sweetened sesame paste (halawa tehineh): kinetic and penetration study. , 2007, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[129]  Jef R. Peeters,et al.  Closed loop recycling of plastics containing flame retardants , 2014 .

[130]  M. Kraak,et al.  Plastics in the marine environment: the dark side of a modern gift. , 2012, Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[131]  Pôle Environnement,et al.  THE INFLUENCE OF PVC ON THE QUANTITY AND HAZARDOUSNESS OF FLUE GAS RESIDUES FROM INCINERATION , 2000 .

[132]  Y. Tsumura,et al.  Phthalates, Adipates, Citrate and Some of the Other Plasticizers Detected in Japanese Retail Foods: a Survey , 2002 .

[133]  G. Ferrara,et al.  Diffusion coefficient and activation energy of Irganox 1010 in poly(propylene-co-ethylene) copolymers , 2001 .

[134]  J. M. López-Vilariño,et al.  Effect of several variables in the polymer toys additive migration to saliva. , 2011, Talanta.

[135]  Costas A Velis,et al.  Circular economy and global secondary material supply chains , 2015, Waste management & research : the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA.

[136]  Anders Branth Pedersen,et al.  The influence of resource strategies on childhood phthalate exposure--the role of REACH in a zero waste society. , 2014, Environment international.

[137]  Jeffrey E. Danes,et al.  Migration of heavy metals from recycled polyethylene terephthalate during storage and microwave heating , 2016 .

[138]  Shin-ichi Sakai,et al.  Leaching characteristics of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) from flame-retardant plastics. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[139]  Albert A Koelmans,et al.  Plastic in north sea fish. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[140]  A. Andrady The plastic in microplastics: A review. , 2017, Marine pollution bulletin.

[141]  Tsuyoshi Murata,et al.  {m , 1934, ACML.

[142]  R. Pfaendner Plastic Additives , 2019, Kirk‐Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology.

[143]  E. Foekema,et al.  Leaching of plastic additives to marine organisms. , 2014, Environmental pollution.

[144]  Todd Gouin,et al.  A thermodynamic approach for assessing the environmental exposure of chemicals absorbed to microplastic. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[145]  H. Oyama,et al.  Effects of partial miscibility on the structure and properties of novel high performance blends composed of poly( p -phenylene sulfide) and poly(phenylsulfone) , 2014 .

[146]  A. Luciani,et al.  Styrene and Ethylbenzene Migration from Polystyrene into Dairy Products by Dynamic Purge‐and‐Trap Gas Chromatography , 1994 .

[147]  C. Simoneau,et al.  Identification and quantification of the migration of chemicals from plastic baby bottles used as substitutes for polycarbonate , 2011, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[148]  Bin Li,et al.  Comparative evaluation of environmental contamination and DNA damage induced by electronic-waste in Nigeria and China. , 2012, The Science of the total environment.

[149]  Jozef P. H. Linssen,et al.  Research note — migration of antioxidants from polyolefins into ethanolic simulants , 1998 .

[150]  Hiromitsu Watanabe,et al.  Comparative study of the endocrine-disrupting activity of bisphenol A and 19 related compounds. , 2005, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[151]  F. Gao Handbook of plastics recycling. F La Mantia (ed). Rapra Technology, Shrewsbury UK, 2002. pp 441, ISBN 1‐85957‐325‐8 , 2004 .

[152]  C. Crews,et al.  Migration of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) Oligomers from PET Plastics into Foods during Microwave and Conventional Cooking and into Bottled Beverages. , 1989, Journal of food protection.

[153]  R. Gavara,et al.  Characterizing the migration of antioxidants from polypropylene into fatty food simulants , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[154]  Ellen Besseling,et al.  Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment. Critical Review , 2015 .

[155]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Microplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English Channel. , 2017, Environmental pollution.

[156]  C. Wilcox,et al.  Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean , 2015, Science.

[157]  Ake Larsson,et al.  Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition. , 2011, The Science of the total environment.

[158]  M. Suman,et al.  Analytical screening of polyadipates and other plasticisers in poly(vinyl chloride) gasket seals and in fatty food by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. , 2007, Analytica chimica acta.

[159]  Albert A Koelmans,et al.  Plastics in the marine environment , 2014, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[160]  Joel Pereira,et al.  Migration of two antioxidants from packaging into a solid food and into Tenax , 2012 .

[161]  K. Grob,et al.  Migration of plasticizers from PVC gaskets of lids for glass jars into oily foods: Amount of gasket material in food contact, proportion of plasticizer migrating into food and compliance testing by simulation , 2006 .

[162]  Alessio Gomiero,et al.  Plastics in the Environment , 2019 .

[163]  T. Crompton Additive migration from plastics into food , 1979 .

[164]  K. Kannan,et al.  Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Polybrominated Biphenyls in Sediment and Floodplain Soils of the Saginaw River Watershed, Michigan, USA , 2008, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[165]  M. Depledge,et al.  Plastic litter in the sea. , 2013, Marine environmental research.

[166]  R. Franz,et al.  Kinetic migration studies from packaging films into meat products. , 2007, Meat science.

[167]  Emily E. Peacock,et al.  Plastic Accumulation in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre , 2010, Science.

[168]  Annamalai Subramanian,et al.  Environmental contamination and human exposure to dioxin-related compounds in e-waste recycling sites of developing countries. , 2013, Environmental science. Processes & impacts.

[169]  Gorjan Alagic,et al.  #p , 2019, Quantum information & computation.

[170]  O. Piringer,et al.  Migration of a UV stabilizer from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into food simulants , 2004, Food additives and contaminants.

[171]  Jing Wang,et al.  Brominated flame retardants in children's toys: concentration, composition, and children's exposure and risk assessment. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[172]  A. Kortenkamp Ten Years of Mixing Cocktails: A Review of Combination Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals , 2007, Environmental health perspectives.

[173]  Richard C. Thompson,et al.  Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments , 2009, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[174]  K. Hughes,et al.  Microplastics in the Antarctic marine system: An emerging area of research. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[175]  Oladele Osibanjo,et al.  Substance flow analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic from EEE/WEEE in Nigeria in the frame of Stockholm Convention as a basis for policy advice , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[176]  Ming H Wong,et al.  Body burdens of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in childbearing-aged women at an intensive electronic-waste recycling site in China , 2010, Environmental science and pollution research international.

[177]  Weber Roland,et al.  FINGERPRINTS of CHLORINATED, BROMINATED AND MIXED HALOGENATED DIOXINS AT TWO E-WASTE RECYCLING SITES IN GUIYU/CHINA , 2009 .

[178]  J. Nelson,et al.  The Final Report , 2005 .

[179]  Ying Zheng,et al.  A Review of Plastic Waste Biodegradation , 2005, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[180]  Bo Yuan,et al.  Influence of e-waste dismantling and its regulations: temporal trend, spatial distribution of heavy metals in rice grains, and its potential health risk. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[181]  Zhenming Xu,et al.  PM10 and PM2.5 and health risk assessment for heavy metals in a typical factory for cathode ray tube television recycling. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[182]  Qian Xu,et al.  Analysis of phthalate migration from plastic containers to packaged cooking oil and mineral water. , 2010, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[183]  Anthony L Andrady,et al.  Microplastics in the marine environment. , 2011, Marine pollution bulletin.

[184]  Shaoyun Guo,et al.  Reinforcement of adhesion and development of morphology at polymer–polymer interface via reactive compatibilization: A review , 2010 .

[185]  Dan Chen,et al.  Detection of phthalates migration from disposable tablewares to drinking water using hexafluoroisopropanol-induced catanionic surfactant coacervate extraction☆ , 2016, Journal of pharmaceutical analysis.

[186]  S. Shaw Halogenated Flame Retardants: Do the Fire Safety Benefits Justify the Risks? , 2010, Reviews on environmental health.

[187]  I. Skjevrak,et al.  Increased migration levels of bisphenol A from polycarbonate baby bottles after dishwashing, boiling and brushing , 2003, Food additives and contaminants.