Cortical activities associated with voluntary movements and involuntary movements

Recent advance in non-invasive techniques including electrophysiology and functional neuroimaging has enabled investigation of control mechanism of voluntary movements and pathophysiology of involuntary movements in human. Epicortical recording with subdural electrodes in epilepsy patients complemented the findings obtained by the non-invasive techniques. Before self-initiated simple movement, activation occurs first in the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and SMA proper bilaterally with some somatotopic organisation, and the lateral premotor area (PMA) and primary motor cortex (M1) mainly contralateral to the movement with precise somatotopic organisation. Functional connectivity among cortical areas has been disclosed by cortico-cortical coherence, cortico-cortical evoked potential, and functional MRI. Cortical activities associated with involuntary movements have been studied by jerk-locked back averaging and cortico-muscular coherence. Application of transcranial magnetic stimulation helped clarifying the state of excitability and inhibition in M1. The sensorimotor cortex (S1-M1) was shown to play an important role in generation of cortical myoclonus, essential tremor, Parkinson tremor and focal dystonia. Cortical myoclonus is actively driven by S1-M1 while essential tremor and Parkinson tremor are mediated by S1-M1. 'Negative motor areas' at PMA and pre-SMA and 'inhibitory motor areas' at peri-rolandic cortex might be involved in the control of voluntary movement and generation of negative involuntary movements, respectively.

[1]  J. Binder,et al.  Functional magnetic resonance imaging of complex human movements , 1993, Neurology.

[2]  B. Conway,et al.  Synchronization between motor cortex and spinal motoneuronal pool during the performance of a maintained motor task in man. , 1995, The Journal of physiology.

[3]  M. Simonetta,et al.  Bereitschaftspotential in a simple movement or in a motor sequence starting with the same simple movement. , 1991, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[4]  H. Lüders,et al.  Functional connectivity in human cortical motor system: a cortico-cortical evoked potential study. , 2006, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[5]  E. Cassetta,et al.  Sensorimotor integration in focal task-specific hand dystonia: A magnetoencephalographic assessment , 2008, Neuroscience.

[6]  Gert Pfurtscheller,et al.  The cortical activation model (CAM). , 2006, Progress in brain research.

[7]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Desynchronization and synchronization of central 20-Hz rhythms associated with voluntary muscle relaxation: a magnetoencephalographic study , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[8]  T. Mima,et al.  Cortical reflex negative myoclonus. , 1994, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[9]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Cortical areas and the selection of movement: a study with positron emission tomography , 1991, Experimental Brain Research.

[10]  R. Hari,et al.  Cortical reactivity in progressive myoclonus epilepsy. , 1994, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[11]  M Honda,et al.  Abnormal cortical mechanisms of voluntary muscle relaxation in patients with writer's cramp: an fMRI study. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[12]  R. Hari,et al.  Movement-related slow cortical magnetic fields and changes of spontaneous MEG- and EEG-brain rhythms. , 1996, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[13]  M Honda,et al.  Mechanisms underlying gait disturbance in Parkinson's disease: a single photon emission computed tomography study. , 1999, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[14]  L. Deecke,et al.  Magnetic fields of the human brain accompanying voluntary movement: Bereitschaftsmagnetfeld , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[15]  T. Mima,et al.  Increased Synchronization of Cortical Oscillatory Activities between Human Supplementary Motor and Primary Sensorimotor Areas during Voluntary Movements , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[16]  Gregory F. Molnar,et al.  Differences in neuronal firing rates in pallidal and cerebellar receiving areas of thalamus in patients with Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and pain. , 2005, Journal of neurophysiology.

[17]  L. Deecke,et al.  Magnetic fields of the human brain (Bereitschaftsmagnetfeld) preceding voluntary foot and toe movements , 1983, Experimental Brain Research.

[18]  Noriaki Hattori,et al.  Discrete parieto-frontal functional connectivity related to grasping. , 2009, Journal of neurophysiology.

[19]  T. Hanakawa,et al.  Neural control mechanisms for normal versus parkinsonian gait. , 2004, Progress in brain research.

[20]  A. Terashi,et al.  Cortical potentials preceding voluntary finger movement in patients with focal cerebellar lesion , 1997, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[21]  H. Lüders,et al.  Parieto‐frontal network in humans studied by cortico‐cortical evoked potential , 2012, Human brain mapping.

[22]  P. Ashby,et al.  Coherence between cerebellar thalamus, cortex and muscle in man: cerebellar thalamus interactions. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[23]  M. Vidailhet,et al.  Familial cortical myoclonic tremor with epilepsy , 2010, Neurology.

[24]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Cortical potentials following voluntary and passive finger movements. , 1980, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[25]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Components of the movement-related cortical potential and their scalp topography. , 1980, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[26]  M Honda,et al.  Cortical mechanism underlying externally cued gait initiation studied by contingent negative variation. , 1997, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[27]  Mark Hallett,et al.  The Bereitschaftspotential : movement-related cortical potentials , 2003 .

[28]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Movement-related cortical potentials associated with voluntary relaxation of foot muscles , 1999, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[29]  E. Altenmüller,et al.  Focal dystonia in musicians: phenomenology, pathophysiology and triggering factors , 2010, European journal of neurology.

[30]  Febo Cincotti,et al.  Human Movement-Related Potentials vs Desynchronization of EEG Alpha Rhythm: A High-Resolution EEG Study , 1999, NeuroImage.

[31]  H. Kornhuber,et al.  Distribution of readiness potential, pre-motion positivity, and motor potential of the human cerebral cortex preceding voluntary finger movements , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[32]  J. Kimura,et al.  Rest‐induced suppression of anterior horn cell excitability as measured by F waves: Comparison between volitionally inactivated and control muscles , 2008, Muscle & nerve.

[33]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Human eye fields in the frontal lobe as studied by epicortical recording of movement-related cortical potentials. , 2004, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[34]  P Limousin-Dowsey,et al.  Subthalamic nucleus, sensorimotor cortex and muscle interrelationships in Parkinson's disease. , 2001, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[35]  Guido Nolte,et al.  Synchronization of parietal and premotor areas during preparation and execution of praxis hand movements , 2005, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[36]  M. Hallett,et al.  The timing of the conscious intention to move , 2008, The European journal of neuroscience.

[37]  Ewald Moser,et al.  Premovement activity of the pre-supplementary motor area and the readiness for action: studies of time-resolved event-related functional MRI. , 2005, Human movement science.

[38]  B. Libet,et al.  Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. , 1983, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[39]  Hans Helmut Kornhuber,et al.  An electrical sign of participation of the mesial ‘supplementary’ motor cortex in human voluntary finger movement , 1978, Brain Research.

[40]  I. Kanazawa,et al.  Magnetoencephalographic analysis of cortical myoclonic jerks. , 1996, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[41]  J. Stein,et al.  Physiological and harmonic components in neural and muscular coherence in Parkinsonian tremor , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[42]  Hans Helmut Kornhuber,et al.  Human Freedom, Reasoned Will, and the Brain: The Bereitschaftspotential Story , 2003 .

[43]  M. Butz,et al.  Synchronized brain network underlying postural tremor in Wilson's disease , 2006, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[44]  W Lang,et al.  Bereitschaftspotential in patients with unilateral lesions of the supplementary motor area. , 1987, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[45]  J. Dostrovsky,et al.  Surgery of the motor thalamus: Problems with the present nomenclatures , 2002, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[46]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Enhanced negative slope of cortical potentials before sequential as compared with simultaneous extensions of two fingers. , 1993, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[47]  Ying-Zu Huang,et al.  Abnormal cortical excitability with preserved brainstem and spinal reflexes in sialidosis type I , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[48]  H. Kornhuber,et al.  Hirnpotentialänderungen bei Willkürbewegungen und passiven Bewegungen des Menschen: Bereitschaftspotential und reafferente Potentiale , 1965, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[49]  E Wyllie,et al.  Subdural electrodes in the presurgical evaluation for surgery of epilepsy. , 1992, Epilepsy research. Supplement.

[50]  M. Hallett,et al.  Corticomuscular coherence: a review. , 1999, Journal of clinical neurophysiology : official publication of the American Electroencephalographic Society.

[51]  G. Lindinger,et al.  Supplementary Motor Area Activation Preceding Voluntary Movement Is Detectable with a Whole-Scalp Magnetoencephalography System , 2000, NeuroImage.

[52]  P. Roland,et al.  Supplementary motor area and other cortical areas in organization of voluntary movements in man. , 1980, Journal of neurophysiology.

[53]  Y. Ugawa,et al.  Difference in intracortical inhibition of the motor cortex between cortical myoclonus and focal hand dystonia , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[54]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  The functional role of the parieto-frontal mirror circuit: interpretations and misinterpretations , 2010, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[55]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Presence of Bereitschaftspotential preceding psychogenic myoclonus: clinical application of jerk-locked back averaging. , 1995, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[56]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  How does voluntary movement stop resting tremor? , 2010, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[57]  K. Jellinger,et al.  The Bereitschaftspotential: Movement Related Cortical Potentials , 2003 .

[58]  M Hallett,et al.  Simple motor tics may be preceded by a premotor potential. , 1996, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[59]  Hideki Oshima,et al.  Difference in surgical strategies between thalamotomy and thalamic deep brain stimulation for tremor control , 2005, Journal of Neurology.

[60]  J Kimura,et al.  Abnormal cortical processing of voluntary muscle relaxation in patients with focal hand dystonia studied by movement-related potentials. , 1999, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[61]  S. Tobimatsu,et al.  Pathogenesis of giant somatosensory evoked potentials in progressive myoclonic epilepsy. , 1985, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[62]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Volitional movement is not preceded by cortical slow negativity in cerebellar dentate lesion in man , 1986, Brain Research.

[63]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Cortical potentials associated with voluntary foot movement in man. , 1981, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[64]  W M Jenkins,et al.  A primate model for studying focal dystonia and repetitive strain injury: effects on the primary somatosensory cortex. , 1997, Physical therapy.

[65]  Eleonora Aronica,et al.  Familial cortical tremor with epilepsy and cerebellar pathological findings , 2004, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[66]  J. Dostrovsky,et al.  Enhanced synchronization of thalamic theta band local field potentials in patients with essential tremor , 2009, Experimental Neurology.

[67]  D. Cheyne,et al.  Three-dimensional localization of SMA activity preceding voluntary movement , 2004, Experimental Brain Research.

[68]  B. Larsen,et al.  Activation of the supplementary motor area during voluntary movement in man suggests it works as a supramotor area. , 1979, Science.

[69]  M. Hallett,et al.  Functional properties of brain areas associated with motor execution and imagery. , 2003, Journal of neurophysiology.

[70]  M. Hallett,et al.  Asymmetric spatiotemporal patterns of event-related desynchronization preceding voluntary sequential finger movements: a high-resolution EEG study , 2005, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[71]  J. Colebatch,et al.  Movement-related potentials associated with self-paced, cued and imagined arm movements , 2002, Experimental Brain Research.

[72]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  A cortical slow potential is larger before an isolated movement of a single finger than simultaneous movement of two fingers. , 1993, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[73]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Use of magnetoencephalography in the presurgical evaluation of epilepsy patients , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[74]  Eleonora Aronica,et al.  Decreased cortical inhibition and yet cerebellar pathology in ‘familial cortical myoclonic tremor with epilepsy’ , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[75]  T. Mima,et al.  Role of primary sensorimotor cortex and supplementary motor area in volitional swallowing: a movement-related cortical potential study. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology.

[76]  I. Kanazawa,et al.  Giant somatosensory evoked magnetic field in patients with myoclonus epilepsy. , 1993, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[77]  M Honda,et al.  Abnormal sensorimotor integration in writer's cramp: Study of contingent negative variation , 1996, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[78]  H. Siebner,et al.  Effector‐independent representations of simple and complex imagined finger movements: a combined fMRI and TMS study , 2003, The European journal of neuroscience.

[79]  H Shibasaki,et al.  The cortical generators of the contingent negative variation in humans: a study with subdural electrodes. , 1997, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[80]  J. A. Bates,et al.  Electrical activity of the cortex accompanying movement , 1951, The Journal of physiology.

[81]  Jan Raethjen,et al.  Time Delay and Partial Coherence Analyses to Identify Cortical Connectivities , 2005, Biological Cybernetics.

[82]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Generators and temporal succession of giant somatosensory evoked potentials in cortical reflex myoclonus: Epicortical recording from sensorimotor cortex , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[83]  M. Hallett,et al.  Electrophysiological studies of myoclonus , 2000, Muscle & nerve.

[84]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Cortical potentials preceding voluntary movement: evidence for three periods of preparation in man. , 1986, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[85]  R. G. Lee,et al.  Motor Responses to Sudden Limb Displacements in Primates with Specific CNS Lesions and in Human Patients with Motor System Disorders , 1975, Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques.

[86]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Dissociation between contingent negative variation and Bereitschaftspotential in a patient with cerebellar efferent lesion. , 1994, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[87]  H. Lüders,et al.  Movement-related potentials recorded from supplementary motor area and primary motor area. Role of supplementary motor area in voluntary movements. , 1992, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[88]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Role of primary sensorimotor cortices in generating inhibitory motor response in humans. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[89]  H. Iida,et al.  Effect of volitional relaxation and motor imagery on F wave and MEP: Do these tasks affect excitability of the spinal or cortical motor neurons? , 2011, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[90]  Mark Hallett,et al.  Disturbed surround inhibition in focal hand dystonia , 2004, Annals of neurology.

[91]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Recording of movement-related potentials from scalp and cortex in man. , 1988, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[92]  L. Tassi,et al.  Negative myoclonus induced by cortical electrical stimulation in epileptic patients. , 2006, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[93]  J. R. Rosenberg,et al.  Using electroencephalography to study functional coupling between cortical activity and electromyograms during voluntary contractions in humans , 1998, Neuroscience Letters.

[94]  J C Rothwell,et al.  Simple tics in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome are not prefaced by a normal premovement EEG potential. , 1981, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[95]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Movement-related change of electrocorticographic activity in human supplementary motor area proper. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[96]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Negative motor seizure arising from the negative motor area: Is it ictal apraxia? , 2009, Epilepsia.

[97]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Cortical activation during fast repetitive finger movements in humans: steady-state movement-related magnetic fields and their cortical generators. , 1998, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[98]  G. Monnier,et al.  Unilateral pure thalamic asterixis: Clinical, electromyographic, and topographic patterns , 2000, Neurology.

[99]  Christa Neuper,et al.  Movement and ERD/ERS , 2003 .

[100]  Ewald Moser,et al.  The preparation and readiness for voluntary movement: a high-field event-related fMRI study of the Bereitschafts-BOLD response , 2003, NeuroImage.

[101]  T. Mima,et al.  Pathogenesis of cortical myoclonus studied by magnetoencephalography , 1998, Annals of neurology.

[102]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Physiological study of cervical dystonia. Task-specific abnormality in contingent negative variation. , 1995, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[103]  M Honda,et al.  Activities of the Primary and Supplementary Motor Areas Increase in Preparation and Execution of Voluntary Muscle Relaxation: An Event-Related fMRI Study , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[104]  J. Timmer,et al.  Tremor-correlated neuronal activity in the subthalamic nucleus of Parkinsonian patients , 2008, Neuroscience Letters.

[105]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Cortical correlate of the Piper rhythm in humans. , 1998, Journal of neurophysiology.

[106]  H Shibasaki,et al.  A computer-assisted method for averaging movement-related cortical potentials with respect to EMG onset. , 1985, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[107]  J C Rothwell,et al.  Abnormal premovement gating of somatosensory input in writer's cramp. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[108]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Electroencephalographic correlates of myoclonus. , 1975, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[109]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Changes in the balance between motor cortical excitation and inhibition in focal, task specific dystonia. , 1995, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[110]  A. McComas,et al.  Potentiation of `late' responses evoked in muscles during effort , 1971, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[111]  M. Honda,et al.  Both primary motor cortex and supplementary motor area play an important role in complex finger movement. , 1993, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[112]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Human supplementary motor area is active in preparation for both voluntary muscle relaxation and contraction: subdural recording of Bereitschaftspotential , 1998, Neuroscience Letters.

[113]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Clinical studies of the movement-related cortical potential (MP) and the relationship between the dentatorubrothalamic pathway and readiness potential (RP) , 1978, Journal of Neurology.

[114]  Aart J. Nederveen,et al.  Structural, functional and molecular imaging of the brain in primary focal dystonia—A review , 2011, NeuroImage.

[115]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Temporal activation pattern of parietal and premotor areas related to praxis movements , 2005, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[116]  M. Tijssen,et al.  Familial cortical myoclonic tremor with epilepsy: A single syndromic classification for a group of pedigrees bearing common features , 2005, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[117]  E. Altenmüller,et al.  The musician's brain as a model of neuroplasticity , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[118]  R. Rosenfeld.  Nature , 2009, Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.

[119]  G. Pfurtscheller,et al.  Event-related cortical desynchronization detected by power measurements of scalp EEG. , 1977, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[120]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  Mirror neurons: from discovery to autism , 2009, Experimental Brain Research.

[121]  Mark Hallett,et al.  Movement‐related cortical potentials in primary lateral sclerosis , 2006, Annals of neurology.

[122]  T. Mima,et al.  Human presupplementary motor area is active before voluntary movement: subdural recording of Bereitschaftspotential from medial frontal cortex , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[123]  J. Timmer,et al.  Dynamic synchronisation of central oscillators in essential tremor , 2003, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[124]  H. Freund,et al.  The cerebral oscillatory network of parkinsonian resting tremor. , 2003, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[125]  L. Deecke,et al.  The Preparation and Execution of Self-Initiated and Externally-Triggered Movement: A Study of Event-Related fMRI , 2002, NeuroImage.

[126]  H. Shibasaki.  Human brain mapping: Hemodynamic response and electrophysiology , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[127]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Brain functional activity during gait in normal subjects: a SPECT study , 1997, Neuroscience Letters.

[128]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Neural control of micturition in man examined with single photon emission computed tomography using 99mTc‐HMPAO , 1996, Neuroreport.

[129]  C. D. MARSDEN,et al.  Servo Action in Human Voluntary Movement , 1972, Nature.

[130]  J. Valls-Solé,et al.  Motor cortex excitability changes during imagery of simple reaction time , 2008, Experimental Brain Research.

[131]  M. Honda,et al.  Enhanced lateral premotor activity during paradoxical gait in Parkinson's disease , 1999, Annals of neurology.

[132]  J. Winn,et al.  Brain , 1878, The Lancet.

[133]  J C Rothwell,et al.  The Bereitschaftspotential preceding simple foot movement and initiation of gait in Parkinson's disease , 1993, Neurology.

[134]  R. Hari,et al.  Cortical control of human motoneuron firing during isometric contraction. , 1997, Journal of neurophysiology.

[135]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Subdural potentials at orbitofrontal and mesial prefrontal areas accompanying anticipation and decision making in humans: a comparison with Bereitschaftspotential. , 1996, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[136]  H. Lüders,et al.  Functional connectivity in the human language system: a cortico-cortical evoked potential study. , 2004, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[137]  Scott T. Grafton,et al.  Human functional anatomy of visually guided finger movements. , 1992, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[138]  E Wyllie,et al.  Cortical electrical stimulation in humans. The negative motor areas. , 1995, Advances in neurology.

[139]  H Shibasaki,et al.  Movement-related cortical potentials associated with voluntary muscle relaxation. , 1995, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[140]  H. Shibasaki,et al.  Evidence for a wide distribution of negative motor areas in the perirolandic cortex , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[141]  M. Hallett,et al.  Complexity affects regional cerebral blood flow change during sequential finger movements , 1996, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[142]  Hiroshi Shibasaki,et al.  Electrocorticogram–electromyogram coherence during isometric contraction of hand muscle in human , 2000, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[143]  J. C. Rothwell,et al.  Increase of the Bereitschaftspotential in simultaneous and sequential movements , 1985, Neuroscience Letters.

[144]  M. Hallett,et al.  What is the Bereitschaftspotential? , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[145]  Beserra,et al.  Ictal SPECT in paroxysmal non-kinesigenic dyskinesia. Case report and review of the literature. , 2000, Parkinsonism & related disorders.