Running Head : FINDING HAPPINESS 1 Finding Happiness : Tailoring Positive Activities for Optimal Well-Being Benefits

" We all live with the objective of being happy; our lives are all different and yet the same. " ~Anne Frank No matter how different people's lives – whether due to age, gender, culture, or life experience – the desire for happiness is widespread. Across cultures, the majority of people include happiness as one of their primary goals in life (Diener, 2000), and many seek ways to render themselves happier (Bergsma, 2008). Not surprisingly, the secrets of how to become happier and live a more fulfilling life have been topics of philosophical and lay interest for many years (Kesebir & Diener, 2008). However, the route to happiness may be different for each individual. With recent developments in the field of positive psychology, the question of how to become happier has become a topic of growing scientific interest but few have examined how individuals may differ in their pursuit of happiness. That being so, Anne Frank's recognition of the commonalities and differences in people's lives, as well as in the pursuit of happiness itself, points to important new directions for research.

[1]  F. Fincham,et al.  Beyond positive psychology? Toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being. , 2012, The American psychologist.

[2]  J. Pennebaker Writing About Emotional Experiences as a Therapeutic Process , 1997 .

[3]  E. Diener,et al.  Personality and Subjective Well-Being , 2009 .

[4]  L. Carstensen,et al.  Taking time seriously. A theory of socioemotional selectivity. , 1999, The American psychologist.

[5]  M. Mongrain,et al.  The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression , 2010 .

[6]  Hans-Ulrich Wittchen,et al.  Generalized anxiety disorder: prevalence, burden, and cost to society , 2002, Depression and anxiety.

[7]  V. Helgeson,et al.  A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. , 2006, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[8]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Subjective Weil-Being: Three Decades of Progress , 2004 .

[9]  Nansook Park,et al.  Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction in twenty-seven nations , 2009 .

[10]  Virginia S Y Kwan,et al.  Personality change over 40 years of adulthood: hierarchical linear modeling analyses of two longitudinal samples. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[11]  S. Frazier,et al.  Expanding the Toolkit or Changing the Paradigm , 2011, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[12]  C. Ryff Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. , 1989 .

[13]  A. Kazdin,et al.  Interventions and Models of Their Delivery to Reduce the Burden of Mental Illness , 2011, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[14]  Shacunda Burton,et al.  Predicting the intentions of women in domestic violence shelters to return to partners: does forgiveness play a role? , 2004, Journal of family psychology : JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association.

[15]  J. Gruber,et al.  A Dark Side of Happiness? How, When, and Why Happiness Is Not Always Good , 2011, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[16]  Robert Biswas-Diener,et al.  Please Scroll down for Article the Journal of Positive Psychology Reconsidering Happiness: the Costs of Distinguishing between Hedonics and Eudaimonia Reconsidering Happiness: the Costs of Distinguishing between Hedonics and Eudaimonia , 2022 .

[17]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Optimal Human Being: An Integrated Multi-level Perspective , 2004 .

[18]  Paul A M Van Lange,et al.  Forgiveness and Its Associations With Prosocial Thinking, Feeling, and Doing Beyond the Relationship With the Offender , 2005, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[19]  Rita C. Seabrook,et al.  Development of a positive psychology intervention for patients with acute cardiovascular disease , 2011, Heart international.

[20]  Leanne M Williams,et al.  The Mellow Years?: Neural Basis of Improving Emotional Stability over Age , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[21]  Amy L. Ai,et al.  Meaning Making and Growth: New Directions for Research on Survivors of Trauma , 2006 .

[22]  R. Walsh,et al.  and Mental Health , 2022 .

[23]  Shannon M. Suldo,et al.  Longitudinal academic outcomes predicted by early adolescents’ subjective well-being, psychopathology, and mental health status yielded from a dual factor model , 2011 .

[24]  S. Lilienfeld,et al.  Do Self-Help Books Help? , 2006 .

[25]  B. Vaughn,et al.  Are happy children socially successful? Testing a central premise of positive psychology in a sample of preschool children , 2011 .

[26]  P. Costa,et al.  Personality in adulthood , 1990 .

[27]  L. Salmaso,et al.  Well-Being Therapy of Generalized Anxiety Disorder , 2004, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics.

[28]  E. Deci,et al.  Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. , 2008 .

[29]  Lihong Wang,et al.  Delivering happiness: translating positive psychology intervention research for treating major and minor depressive disorders. , 2011, Journal of alternative and complementary medicine.

[30]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success? , 2005, Psychological bulletin.

[31]  Christopher P. Niemiec,et al.  The Path Taken: Consequences of Attaining Intrinsic and Extrinsic Aspirations in Post-College Life. , 2009, Journal of research in personality.

[32]  D. Rooney Practical Wisdom: The Right Way to Do the Right Thing , 2013 .

[33]  Robert A Emmons,et al.  Counting blessings in early adolescents: an experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. , 2008, Journal of school psychology.

[34]  S. Lyubomirsky The How of Happiness: A Scientific Approach to Getting the Life You Want , 2007 .

[35]  T. Kashdan,et al.  Understanding the search for meaning in life: personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. , 2008, Journal of personality.

[36]  E. Deci,et al.  On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. , 2001, Annual review of psychology.

[37]  B. Singer,et al.  Psychosocial adjustment among cancer survivors: findings from a national survey of health and well-being. , 2009, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[38]  K. Watkins,et al.  The health value and cost of care for major depression. , 2009, Value in health : the journal of the International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research.

[39]  R. Dickerhoof Expressing optimism and gratitude: A longitudinal investigation of cognitive strategies to increase well-being. , 2007 .

[40]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: the self-concordance model. , 1999, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[41]  Margaret L. Kern,et al.  Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes , 2007 .

[42]  J. E. HUMBLE,et al.  The meaning of life , 2013, Nature.

[43]  T. Kashdan,et al.  Challenges, Pitfalls, and Aspirations for Positive Psychology , 2011 .

[44]  C. Surawy,et al.  The Effect of Mindfulness Training on Mood and Measures of Fatigue, Activity, and Quality of Life in Patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome on a Hospital Waiting List: A Series of Exploratory Studies , 2005, Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[45]  Sheldon Cohen,et al.  Does positive affect influence health? , 2005, Psychological bulletin.

[46]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way: an experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being. , 2011, Emotion.

[47]  B. Fredrickson,et al.  Positive Emotions Trigger Upward Spirals Toward Emotional Well-Being , 2002, Psychological science.

[48]  Susanne Iwarsson,et al.  Relationships between housing and healthy aging in very old age. , 2007, The Gerontologist.

[49]  E. Kelly Individualism and collectivism , 1901 .

[50]  H. Triandis,et al.  The Shifting Basis of Life Satisfaction Judgments Across Cultures: Emotions Versus Norms , 1998 .

[51]  M. Busseri,et al.  A Review of the Tripartite Structure of Subjective Well-Being: Implications for Conceptualization, Operationalization, Analysis, and Synthesis , 2011, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[52]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Well-being : the foundations of hedonic psychology , 1999 .

[53]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  Pursuing Happiness: The Architecture of Sustainable Change , 2005 .

[54]  Brad Lundahl,et al.  Process-Based Forgiveness Interventions: A Meta-Analytic Review , 2008 .

[55]  R. Enright,et al.  The effects of forgiveness therapy on depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress for women after spousal emotional abuse. , 2006, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[56]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Variety is the spice of happiness: The hedonic adaptation prevention model. , 2013 .

[57]  M. Mongrain,et al.  Are positive psychology exercises helpful for people with depressive personality styles? , 2011 .

[58]  C. Carver,et al.  Cognitive-behavioral stress management intervention decreases the prevalence of depression and enhances benefit finding among women under treatment for early-stage breast cancer. , 2001, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[59]  E. Diener,et al.  Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. , 2000, The American psychologist.

[60]  E. Røysamb,et al.  Subjective well-being: genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change , 2006, Psychological Medicine.

[61]  H. Tennen,et al.  Comparison of cognitive behavioral and mindfulness meditation interventions on adaptation to rheumatoid arthritis for patients with and without history of recurrent depression. , 2008, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[62]  B. Roberts,et al.  Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. , 2006, Psychological bulletin.

[63]  L. King,et al.  The Health Benefits of Writing about Life Goals , 2001 .

[64]  B. Zumbo,et al.  Life Satisfaction in Early Adolescence: Personal, Neighborhood, School, Family, and Peer Influences , 2011, Journal of youth and adolescence.

[65]  Richard M. Lerner,et al.  The role of adolescents’ hopeful futures in predicting positive and negative developmental trajectories: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development , 2011 .

[66]  James K McNulty,et al.  The Dark Side of Forgiveness: The Tendency to Forgive Predicts Continued Psychological and Physical Aggression in Marriage , 2011, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[67]  Ed Diener,et al.  Life satisfaction set point: stability and change. , 2005, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[68]  George W. Casey Comprehensive soldier fitness: a vision for psychological resilience in the U.S. Army. , 2011, The American psychologist.

[69]  E. Deci,et al.  The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , 2000 .

[70]  A. Spiro,et al.  Change in life satisfaction during adulthood: findings from the veterans affairs normative aging study. , 2005, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[71]  C. Ryff Possible selves in adulthood and old age: a tale of shifting horizons. , 1991, Psychology and aging.

[72]  Tayyab Rashid,et al.  Positive psychotherapy. , 2018, The American psychologist.

[73]  Sharon McBride,et al.  Master Resilience Training in the U.s. Army Background of the Penn Resilience Program (prp) , 2022 .

[74]  R. Ryan,et al.  Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and Evidence for its Salutary Effects , 2007 .

[75]  D. Porta,et al.  Enhancing the Effects of Happiness-Boosting Activities: The Role of Autonomy Support in an Experimental Longitudinal Intervention , 2012 .

[76]  F. Huppert,et al.  Do positive children become positive adults? Evidence from a longitudinal birth cohort study , 2011, The journal of positive psychology.

[77]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  What Is the Optimal Way to Deliver a Positive Activity Intervention? The Case of Writing About One’s Best Possible Selves , 2012, Journal of Happiness Studies.

[78]  G. Fava,et al.  Well-being therapy. A novel psychotherapeutic approach for residual symptoms of affective disorders , 1998, Psychological Medicine.

[79]  T. Kashdan,et al.  Stability and specificity of meaning in life and life satisfaction over one year , 2007 .

[80]  Sara B. Algoe,et al.  Emotional fitness and the movement of affective science from lab to field. , 2011, The American psychologist.

[81]  Sonja Lyubomirsky,et al.  Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: a practice-friendly meta-analysis. , 2009, Journal of clinical psychology.

[82]  N. Miller,et al.  Who benefits the most from a gratitude intervention in children and adolescents? Examining positive affect as a moderator , 2009 .

[83]  Eli Tsukayama,et al.  Strengths Gym: The impact of a character strengths-based intervention on the life satisfaction and well-being of adolescents , 2011 .

[84]  Auke Tellegen,et al.  Happiness Is a Stochastic Phenomenon , 1996 .

[85]  E. Langer,et al.  The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: a field experiment in an institutional setting. , 1976, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[86]  M. McCullough,et al.  Counting blessings versus burdens: an experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[87]  M. Seligman,et al.  Prevention of Depressive Symptoms in Schoolchildren: Two-Year Follow-Up , 1995 .

[88]  E. Diener,et al.  Subjective well-being. , 1984, Psychological bulletin.

[89]  Sonja Lyubomirsky,et al.  Hedonic Adaptation to Positive and Negative Experiences , 2010 .

[90]  I. Mauss,et al.  "Can seeking happiness make people unhappy? Paradoxical effects of valuing happiness": Correction to Mauss, Tamir, Anderson, and Savino (2011). , 2011 .

[91]  Pelin Kesebir,et al.  In Pursuit of Happiness: Empirical Answers to Philosophical Questions , 2008, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[92]  M. Bédard,et al.  Pilot evaluation of a mindfulness-based intervention to improve quality of life among individuals who sustained traumatic brain injuries , 2003, Disability and rehabilitation.

[93]  Edward L. Deci,et al.  Self-determination theory and the role of basic psychological needs in personality and the organization of behavior. , 2008 .

[94]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  How to increase and sustain positive emotion: The effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves , 2006 .

[95]  R. Enright,et al.  Forgiveness as an intervention goal with incest survivors. , 1996, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[96]  V. Lee,et al.  Meaning-making intervention during breast or colorectal cancer treatment improves self-esteem, optimism, and self-efficacy. , 2006, Social science & medicine.

[97]  S. Heidrich The relationship between physical health and psychological well-being in elderly women: a developmental perspective. , 1993, Research in nursing & health.

[98]  L. Carstensen,et al.  Emotional experience improves with age: evidence based on over 10 years of experience sampling. , 2011, Psychology and aging.

[99]  E. Huebner,et al.  Acknowledging and appreciating the full spectrum of the human condition: School Psychology's (limited) focus on positive psychological functioning , 2011 .

[100]  E. Diener,et al.  Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[101]  M. Seligman,et al.  Positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions. , 2005, The American psychologist.

[102]  Olga V. Demler,et al.  Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. , 2005, Archives of general psychiatry.

[103]  Chris Tkach Unlocking the treasury of human kindness: Enduring improvements in mood, happiness, and self-evaluations. , 2006 .

[104]  G. L. Paul Strategy of outcome research in psychotherapy. , 1967, Journal of consulting psychology.

[105]  A. Tellegen,et al.  in Psychological Science , 1996 .

[106]  S. Schueller To each his own well-being boosting intervention: using preference to guide selection , 2011 .

[107]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  A longitudinal experimental study comparing the effectiveness of happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian Americans , 2011, Cognition & emotion.

[108]  M. Andrykowski,et al.  Social constraints, cognitive processing, and adjustment to breast cancer. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[109]  A. Arkoff,et al.  Gains in Well-Being Achieved Through Retrospective-Proactive Life Review By Independent Older Women , 2004 .

[110]  Ran D. Zilca,et al.  Pursuing happiness in everyday life: the characteristics and behaviors of online happiness seekers. , 2012, Emotion.