Additively manufactured 316L stainless steel with improved corrosion resistance and biological response for biomedical applications

Abstract Enhancing the corrosion resistance and improving the biological response to 316 L stainless steel is a long-standing and active area of biomedical research. Here, we analyzed the structure and corrosion tendency of selective laser melted-additively manufactured (AM) 316 L stainless steel (AM 316L SS) and its wrought counterpart. SEM analysis showed a fine (500–800 nm) interconnected sub-granular structure for the AM 316L SS, but a polygonal coarse-grained structure for the wrought sample. Relative to the wrought sample, the AM 316L SS also exhibited a higher charge transfer resistance and higher breakdown potential (˜1000 mV vs. SCE) when tested in biological electrolytes, which included human serum, PBS, and 0.9 M NaCl. A higher pitting resistance (extended passive region) and improved stability of the AM 316L SS was attributed to its dense structure of oxide film and refined microstructure. Finally, material compatibility with pre-osteoblasts was analyzed. Large cytoplasmic extension of osteoblast cells and retention of stiller morphology was observed when cells were cultured on the AM 316L SS as compared to its wrought counterpart, suggesting that the AM 316L SS was a better substrate for cell spreading and differentiation. The differentiation of cultured cells was further validated by western blot for Runx2. Runx2, an anti–proliferative marker indicative of differentiation, was equivalent in cells cultured on either samples, but overall more cells were present on the AM 316L SS. Given its higher corrosion resistance and ability to support osteoblast adherence, spreading and differentiation, the AM 316L SS has potential for use in the biomedical industry.

[1]  H. Cimenoglu,et al.  Effect of thermal oxidation on corrosion and corrosion-wear behaviour of a Ti-6Al-4V alloy. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[2]  Dierk Raabe,et al.  Microstructure and crystallographic texture of an ultrafine grained C-Mn steel and their evolution during warm deformation and annealing , 2005 .

[3]  J. Stewart,et al.  The kinetics of corrosion of e-glass fibres in sulphuric acid , 2010 .

[4]  E. McCafferty,et al.  Effect of Ion Implantation on the Corrosion Behavior of Iron, Stainless Steels, and Aluminum—A Review , 2001 .

[5]  K. J. Long,et al.  Surface roughness, porosity, and texture as modifiers of cellular adhesion. , 1996, Tissue engineering.

[6]  F. E. Wiria,et al.  Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Effect of laser process parameters on part quality , 2018, International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials.

[7]  Guixue Wang,et al.  Study of biocompatibility of medical grade high nitrogen nickel-free austenitic stainless steel in vitro. , 2014, Materials science & engineering. C, Materials for biological applications.

[8]  P. Marcus,et al.  Nanoscale Morphology and Atomic Structure of Passive Films on Stainless Steel , 2013 .

[9]  H. Gleiter,et al.  Materials with ultrafine microstructures: Retrospectives and perspectives , 1992 .

[10]  G. Kelly,et al.  Effect of thermomechanical parameters on the critical strain for ultrafine ferrite formation through hot torsion testing , 2004 .

[11]  Geoffrey I. N. Waterhouse,et al.  Composition changes around sulphide inclusions in stainless steels, and implications for the initiation of pitting corrosion , 2010 .

[12]  M Navarro,et al.  Biomaterials in orthopaedics , 2008, Journal of The Royal Society Interface.

[13]  K. Chennazhi,et al.  Influence of titania nanotopography on human vascular cell functionality and its proliferation in vitro , 2012 .

[14]  M. Tabrizian,et al.  Nanostructuring of a Titanium Material by High‐Pressure Torsion Improves Pre‐Osteoblast Attachment , 2007 .

[15]  P. Natishan,et al.  Chloride Interactions with the Passive Films on Stainless Steel , 2011 .

[16]  L. P. Karjalainen,et al.  Understanding the impact of grain structure in austenitic stainless steel from a nanograined regime to a coarse-grained regime on osteoblast functions using a novel metal deformation-annealing sequence. , 2013, Acta biomaterialia.

[17]  Deepthy Menon,et al.  Nanotextured stainless steel for improved corrosion resistance and biological response in coronary stenting. , 2015, Nanoscale.

[18]  Sylvia C. Pont,et al.  Surface Roughness , 2014, Computer Vision, A Reference Guide.

[19]  Shing‐Jong Lin,et al.  Effect of surface oxide properties on corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications , 2004 .

[20]  Meng Chen,et al.  Corrosion resistance improvement for 316L stainless steel coronary artery stents by trimethylsilane plasma nanocoatings. , 2014, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[21]  P. S. Rao,et al.  Role of signaling pathways in mesenchymal stem cell differentiation. , 2014, Current stem cell research & therapy.

[22]  N. Selvamurugan,et al.  The design of novel nanostructures on titanium by solution chemistry for an improved osteoblast response , 2009, Nanotechnology.

[23]  Xian-Zong Wang,et al.  Mechanical and electrochemical behavior of nanocrystalline surface of 304 stainless steel , 2002 .

[24]  Digby D. Macdonald,et al.  A Point Defect Model for Anodic Passive Films II . Chemical Breakdown and Pit Initiation , 1981 .

[25]  Ricardo M. Souto,et al.  Origins of pitting corrosion , 2004 .

[26]  D. Costa,et al.  Resistance to Pitting and Chemical Composition of Passive Films of a Fe‐17%Cr Alloy in Chloride‐Containing Acid Solution , 1994 .

[27]  H. Milionis,et al.  Vascular Health and Risk Management Dovepress Management of Dyslipidemias with Fibrates, Alone and in Combination with Statins: Role of Delayed-release Fenofibric Acid , 2022 .

[28]  Ting Zhu,et al.  Additively manufactured hierarchical stainless steels with high strength and ductility. , 2018, Nature materials.

[29]  E. Cho,et al.  Photoelectrochemical analysis on the passive film formed on Fe-20Cr in pH 8.5 buffer solution , 2001 .

[30]  A. Samuel.  Effect of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure , 2022 .

[31]  J. Meyer,et al.  Corrosion behavior of a welded stainless-steel orthopedic implant. , 2001, Biomaterials.

[32]  P. Chu,et al.  Improved corrosion resistance of stainless steel 316L by Ti ion implantation , 2012 .

[33]  P. Peyre,et al.  Influence of high power diode laser surface melting on the pitting corrosion resistance of type 316L stainless steel , 2002 .

[34]  J. Black,et al.  Cellular responses to chemical and morphologic aspects of biomaterial surfaces. I. A novel in vitro model system. , 1995, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[35]  Richard J. Chater,et al.  Why stainless steel corrodes , 2002, Nature.

[36]  I. M. Vlasova,et al.  Study of the denaturation of human serum albumin by sodium dodecyl sulfate using the intrinsic fluorescence of albumin , 2009 .

[37]  R. Streicher,et al.  Nanosurfaces and nanostructures for artificial orthopedic implants. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[38]  Hans-Jörg Fecht,et al.  The mechanism of formation of nanostructure and dissolution of cementite in a pearlitic steel during high pressure torsion , 2003 .

[39]  N. Tsuji,et al.  Ultra-fine grained bulk steel produced by accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process , 1999 .

[40]  P S Walker,et al.  Attachment and proliferation of osteoblasts and fibroblasts on biomaterials for orthopaedic use. , 1995, Biomaterials.

[41]  Mohsen Seifi,et al.  Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review of Mechanical Properties , 2016 .

[42]  C. Colin,et al.  Microstructural and mechanical approaches of the selective laser melting process applied to a nickel-base superalloy , 2012 .

[43]  H. Miura,et al.  Substructures and internal stresses developed under warm severe deformation of austenitic stainless steel , 2000 .

[44]  V. Vignal,et al.  Passive properties of lean duplex stainless steels after long-term ageing in air studied using EBSD, AES, XPS and local electrochemical impedance spectroscopy , 2013 .

[45]  F. Heatley,et al.  In vivo corrosion of 316L stainless-steel hip implants: morphology and elemental compositions of corrosion products. , 1998, Biomaterials.

[46]  Irena Sailer,et al.  A systematic review of the performance of ceramic and metal implant abutments supporting fixed implant reconstructions. , 2009, Clinical oral implants research.

[47]  W. Haider,et al.  Corrosion behavior of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel in acidic media , 2018, Materialia.

[48]  O. Hess,et al.  Stent Coating With Titanium-Nitride-Oxide for Reduction of Neointimal Hyperplasia , 2001, Circulation.

[49]  M. Morad,et al.  A comparative study on the corrosion behaviour of 304 austenitic stainless steel in sulfamic and sulfuric acid solutions , 2008 .

[50]  C. Dong,et al.  Improved pitting corrosion resistance of AISI 316L stainless steel treated by high current pulsed electron beam , 2006 .

[51]  Y. Li,et al.  Electrochemical corrosion behaviour of microcrystalline aluminium in acidic solutions , 2007 .

[52]  F. Calignano.  Investigation of the accuracy and roughness in the laser powder bed fusion process , 2018 .

[53]  X. Ma,et al.  Atomic-scale decoration for improving the pitting corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels , 2014, Scientific Reports.

[54]  N. Birbilis,et al.  On the enhanced corrosion resistance of a selective laser melted austenitic stainless steel , 2017 .

[55]  Wai Yee Yeong,et al.  Laser and electron‐beam powder‐bed additive manufacturing of metallic implants: A review on processes, materials and designs , 2016, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[56]  S. Muley,et al.  An assessment of ultra fine grained 316L stainless steel for implant applications. , 2016, Acta biomaterialia.

[57]  J Black,et al.  Cellular responses to chemical and morphologic aspects of biomaterial surfaces. II. The biosynthetic and migratory response of bone cell populations. , 1995, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[58]  W. Haider,et al.  Electrochemical characterization and thermodynamic tendency of β-Lactoglobulin adsorption on 3D printed stainless steel , 2018, Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

[59]  T. Komori.  Regulation of osteoblast differentiation by Runx2. , 2010, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[60]  T. J. Lienert,et al.  Improved weldability diagram for pulsed laser welded austenitic stainless steels , 2003 .

[61]  I. Olefjord,et al.  Passivation of Stainless Steels in Hydrochloric Acid , 1999 .

[62]  T. Balusamy,et al.  Effect of surface nanocrystallization on the corrosion behaviour of AISI 409 stainless steel , 2010 .

[63]  W. Haider,et al.  The effects of parametric changes in electropolishing process on surface properties of 316L stainless steel , 2017 .

[64]  U. Joos,et al.  Basic reactions of osteoblasts on structured material surfaces. , 2005, European cells & materials.

[65]  Lars-Erik Rännar,et al.  Hierarchical structures of stainless steel 316L manufactured by Electron Beam Melting , 2017 .

[66]  P. Beeley,et al.  Passivity breakdown of 316L stainless steel during potentiodynamic polarization in NaCl solution , 2016 .

[67]  Xu Cheng,et al.  Effect of heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties of austenitic stainless steel 316 L using arc additive manufacturing , 2017 .

[68]  Y. Zhong,et al.  Hardened austenite steel with columnar sub-grain structure formed by laser melting , 2015 .

[69]  Xu Zhang,et al.  The influence of grain size on the corrosion resistance of nanocrystalline zirconium metal , 2007 .

[70]  S. Fujimoto,et al.  XPS characterization of passive films formed on Type 304 stainless steel in humid atmosphere , 2012 .

[71]  B. Malki,et al.  Effect of the final annealing of cold rolled stainless steels sheets on the electronic properties and pit nucleation resistance of passive films , 2008 .

[72]  Jian Lu,et al.  Fatigue life improvement through surface nanostructuring of stainless steel by means of surface mechanical attrition treatment , 2006 .

[73]  Wei Gao,et al.  Effects of nitric acid passivation on the pitting resistance of 316 stainless steel , 2000 .

[74]  F Rupp,et al.  High surface energy enhances cell response to titanium substrate microstructure. , 2005, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[75]  D. Blackwood,et al.  Photocurrent and capacitance investigations into the nature of the passive films on austenitic stainless steels , 2008 .

[76]  M. Zhu,et al.  Corrosion behaviour of nanocrystalline 304 stainless steel prepared by equal channel angular pressing , 2012 .

[77]  Z. Szklarska‐Śmiałowska.  Mechanism of pit nucleation by electrical breakdown of the passive film , 2002 .

[78]  T. Webster,et al.  Specific proteins mediate enhanced osteoblast adhesion on nanophase ceramics. , 2000, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[79]  N. Shamsaei,et al.  Effects of process time interval and heat treatment on the mechanical and microstructural properties of direct laser deposited 316L stainless steel , 2015 .

[80]  Dong Li,et al.  Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of multiple-layer laser cladding coating of 308L stainless steel , 2015 .