The central nervous system and inflammation in hypertension.

In recent years a major research effort has focused on the role of inflammation, and in particular adaptive immunity, in the genesis of hypertension. Hypertension stimulates the accumulation of inflammatory cells including macrophages and T lymphocytes in peripheral tissues important in blood pressure control, such as the kidney and vasculature. Angiotensin II modulates blood pressure via actions on the central nervous system (CNS) and the adaptive immune system. Recent work suggests that the central actions of angiotensin II via the circumventricular organs lead to activation of circulating T-cells and vascular inflammation. The neuro-immune system plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of hypertension and further understanding of this relationship could lead to the development of new treatment strategies.

[1]  V. Sanders,et al.  Norepinephrine and beta 2-adrenergic receptor stimulation regulate CD4+ T and B lymphocyte function in vitro and in vivo. , 2001, Pharmacological reviews.

[2]  Hyung-Suk Kim,et al.  Lymphocyte responses exacerbate angiotensin II-dependent hypertension. , 2010, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[3]  J. Nielsen-Kudsk,et al.  Hydralazine-induced vasodilation involves opening of high conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels. , 1998, European journal of pharmacology.

[4]  Kim,et al.  Preoptic-hypothalamic periventricular lesions: thirst deficits and hypernatremia. , 1977, The American journal of physiology.

[5]  S. Malpas.  Sympathetic nervous system overactivity and its role in the development of cardiovascular disease. , 2010, Physiological Reviews.

[6]  P. Agostinho,et al.  Neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. , 2010, Current pharmaceutical design.

[7]  M. Brody,et al.  Interruption of the maintenance phase of established hypertension by ablation of the anteroventral third ventricle (AV3V) in rats. , 1978, Clinical and experimental hypertension.

[8]  T. Guzik,et al.  Central and Peripheral Mechanisms of T-Lymphocyte Activation and Vascular Inflammation Produced by Angiotensin II–Induced Hypertension , 2010, Circulation research.

[9]  D. Harrison,et al.  Role of the T cell in the genesis of angiotensin II–induced hypertension and vascular dysfunction , 2007, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[10]  B. Oldfield,et al.  The sensory circumventricular organs of the mammalian brain. , 2003, Advances in anatomy, embryology, and cell biology.

[11]  A. Johnson,et al.  Lesions of the anteroventral third ventricle region (AV3V) disrupt cardiovascular responses to an elevation in core temperature. , 2005, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[12]  George Paxinos,et al.  The Mouse Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates , 2001 .

[13]  G. Remuzzi,et al.  Angiotensin II revisited: new roles in inflammation, immunology and aging , 2010, EMBO molecular medicine.

[14]  S. Rivest.  How circulating cytokines trigger the neural circuits that control the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis , 2001, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[15]  J. Collister,et al.  Contribution of the subfornical organ to angiotensin II-induced hypertension. , 2005, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[16]  M. Cassell,et al.  Glia- and Neuron-specific Expression of the Renin-Angiotensin System in Brain Alters Blood Pressure, Water Intake, and Salt Preference* , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[17]  W. D. Martin,et al.  Loss of extracellular superoxide dismutase leads to acute lung damage in the presence of ambient air: a potential mechanism underlying adult respiratory distress syndrome. , 2008, The American journal of pathology.

[18]  J. Paton,et al.  Is neurogenic hypertension related to vascular inflammation of the brainstem? , 2009, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[19]  Colin Sumners,et al.  A current view of brain renin-angiotensin system: Is the (pro)renin receptor the missing link? , 2010, Pharmacology & therapeutics.

[20]  C. Saper,et al.  Afferent connections of the median preoptic nucleus in the rat: Anatomical evidence for a cardiovascular integrative mechanism in the anteroventral third ventricular (AV3V) region , 1983, Brain Research.

[21]  Richard J. Johnson,et al.  The role of renal microvascular disease and interstitial inflammation in salt-sensitive hypertension , 2010, Hypertension Research.

[22]  M. Brody.  Central nervous system and mechanisms of hypertension. , 1988, Clinical physiology and biochemistry.

[23]  C. Ross,et al.  Central angiotensin II-enhanced splenic cytokine gene expression is mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. , 2005, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[24]  A. Johnson,et al.  Angiotensin-induced thirst: Effects of third ventricle obstruction and periventricular ablation , 1978, Brain Research.

[25]  C. May,et al.  The brain renin-angiotensin system: location and physiological roles. , 2003, The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology.

[26]  J. Kwon,et al.  T cells express a phagocyte-type NADPH oxidase that is activated after T cell receptor stimulation , 2004, Nature Immunology.

[27]  S. Felten,et al.  Sympathetic innervation of lymph nodes in mice , 1984, Brain Research Bulletin.

[28]  Richard J. Johnson,et al.  Reduction of renal immune cell infiltration results in blood pressure control in genetically hypertensive rats. , 2002, American journal of physiology. Renal physiology.

[29]  M. Raizada,et al.  Brain cytokines as neuromodulators in cardiovascular control , 2010, Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology.

[30]  M. Brody.  Role of the anteroventral third ventricle region in fluid and electrolyte balance, arterial pressure regulation, and hypertension , 1980 .

[31]  D. Harrison,et al.  Role of the adaptive immune system in hypertension. , 2010, Current opinion in pharmacology.

[32]  W. Banks,et al.  Passage of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier. , 1995, Neuroimmunomodulation.

[33]  D. Harrison,et al.  Regulation of T-cell function by endogenously produced angiotensin II. , 2009, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[34]  M. Zhang,et al.  Angiotensin II induced cerebral microvascular inflammation and increased blood–brain barrier permeability via oxidative stress , 2010, Neuroscience.

[35]  G. Fink,et al.  Region‐specific changes in sympathetic nerve activity in angiotensin II–salt hypertension in the rat , 2010, Experimental physiology.

[36]  R. Korbut,et al.  Perivascular adipose tissue as a messenger of the brain-vessel axis: role in vascular inflammation and dysfunction. , 2007, Journal of physiology and pharmacology : an official journal of the Polish Physiological Society.

[37]  L. Navar,et al.  Involvement of the Brain (Pro)renin Receptor in Cardiovascular Homeostasis , 2010, Circulation research.

[38]  M. Raizada,et al.  Neurogenic hypertension , 2010, Experimental physiology.

[39]  C. Weyand,et al.  Induction of hypertension and peripheral inflammation by deletion of extracellular superoxide dismutase in the central nervous system , 2010, Hypertension.

[40]  H. Besedovsky,et al.  Central and Peripheral Cytokines Mediate Immune-Brain Connectivity , 2010, Neurochemical Research.

[41]  Julian F. R. Paton,et al.  Vascular-brain signaling in hypertension: Role of angiotensin II and nitric oxide , 2007, Current hypertension reports.

[42]  A. Johnson,et al.  Investigations on the physiological controls of water and saline intake in C57BL/6 mice. , 2003, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[43]  D. Davis,et al.  Cardiovascular Consequences of Genetic Variation at −6/235 in Human Angiotensinogen Using “Humanized” Gene-Targeted Mice , 2010, Hypertension.

[44]  K. Sunagawa,et al.  Azelnidipine Decreases Sympathetic Nerve Activity Via Antioxidant Effect in the Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla of Stroke-prone Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats , 2008, Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology.

[45]  P. Guyenet.  The sympathetic control of blood pressure , 2006, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[46]  K. Madden,et al.  Catecholamine influences and sympathetic neural modulation of immune responsiveness. , 1995, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology.

[47]  Nicholas W. Kin,et al.  CD86 Stimulation on a B Cell Activates the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt and Phospholipase Cγ2/Protein Kinase Cαβ Signaling Pathways1 , 2006, The Journal of Immunology.

[48]  S. Rajagopalan,et al.  Hydralazine prevents nitroglycerin tolerance by inhibiting activation of a membrane-bound NADH oxidase. A new action for an old drug. , 1996, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[49]  R. Santos,et al.  Brain-Selective Overexpression of Human Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Type 2 Attenuates Neurogenic Hypertension , 2010, Circulation research.

[50]  M. Zimmerman,et al.  Hypertension Caused by Angiotensin II Infusion Involves Increased Superoxide Production in the Central Nervous System , 2004, Circulation research.

[51]  S. Felten,et al.  Noradrenergic and peptidergic innervation of lymphoid tissue. , 1985, Journal of immunology.

[52]  E. Sternberg,et al.  Neuroendocrine regulation of immunity. , 2003, Annual review of immunology.

[53]  V. Sanders,et al.  IFN-γ Production by Th1 Cells Generated from Naive CD4+ T Cells Exposed to Norepinephrine1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[54]  D. Harrison,et al.  Interleukin 17 Promotes Angiotensin II–Induced Hypertension and Vascular Dysfunction , 2010, Hypertension.

[55]  D. Mattson,et al.  T lymphocytes mediate hypertension and kidney damage in Dahl salt-sensitive rats. , 2010, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[56]  F. Abboud,et al.  Neuro-cardiovascular regulation: from molecules to man. Introduction. , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[57]  M. Raizada,et al.  Brain Microglial Cytokines in Neurogenic Hypertension , 2010, Hypertension.

[58]  M. Brody,et al.  The role of the anteroventral third ventricle (AV3V) region in experimental hypertension , 1978 .

[59]  D. Nance,et al.  Autonomic innervation and regulation of the immune system (1987–2007) , 2007, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity.

[60]  G. Chrousos,et al.  The sympathetic nerve--an integrative interface between two supersystems: the brain and the immune system. , 2000, Pharmacological reviews.

[61]  D. Harrison,et al.  Detection of intracellular superoxide formation in endothelial cells and intact tissues using dihydroethidium and an HPLC-based assay. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology.

[62]  E. Schiffrin,et al.  Immune regulation and vascular inflammation in genetic hypertension. , 2010, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[63]  D. Spitz,et al.  Superoxide Mediates the Actions of Angiotensin II in the Central Nervous System , 2002, Circulation research.

[64]  R. Charnigo,et al.  ANG II infusion promotes abdominal aortic aneurysms independent of increased blood pressure in hypercholesterolemic mice. , 2009, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.