Talkers account for listener and channel characteristics to communicate efficiently

A well-known e ect in speech production is that more predictable linguistic constructions tend to be reduced. Recent work has interpreted this e ect in an information-theoretic framework, proposing that such predictability e ects reflect a tendency towards communicative e ciency. However, others have argued that these e ects are, in the terminology of Gould and Lewontin (1979), spandrels: incidental by-products of other processes (such as a talker-oriented tendency for low production e ort). This article develops the information-theoretic framing more fully, showing that information-theoretic e ciency involves di erent kinds of coding operations (predictability e ects), not all of which are consistent with the spandrel account. Using mixed e ects regressions, we analyze word durations in several spontaneous speech corpora, comparing predictability e ects between infant-directed and adult-directed speech and between speech to visible and invisible listeners. We find that talkers adjust the extent to which production varies with predictability measures according to listener characteristics, and exploit an additional visual channel to eliminate phonetic redundancy. This pattern would demand multiple independent spandrel accounts, but is unified by an adaptive account. Our results broaden the scope of existing work on predictability e ects and provide further evidence that these e ects are tied to communicative e ciency.