Disclosure Disconnects: Antecedents and Consequences of Disclosing Invisible Stigmas across Life Domains

This article broadens our perspective of stigma by examining the process of disclosing an invisible stigmatized identity in work and nonwork domains. I present a model that examines the effects of individual and environmental factors on disclosure decisions across life domains. Individuals may disclose their stigma to varying degrees across life domains, and this inconsistency leads to disclosure disconnects. I examine psychological states and outcomes associated with disclosure disconnects and offer directions for future research.

[1]  Allen C. Bluedorn,et al.  Men and Women of the Corporation , 1978 .

[2]  C. M. Riordan,et al.  Relational demography within groups: Past developments, contradictions, and new directions , 2000 .

[3]  M. Hebl,et al.  The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: "coming out" at work. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[4]  G. Herek,et al.  Victim Experiences in Hate Crimes Based on Sexual Orientation , 2002 .

[5]  B. King,et al.  Ranking of Stigmatization Toward Lesbians and Their Children and the Influence of Perceptions of Controllability of Homosexuality , 2001, Journal of homosexuality.

[6]  B. Weiner,et al.  An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[7]  B. Major,et al.  Abortion as stigma: cognitive and emotional implications of concealment. , 1999, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[8]  T. Witten,et al.  Hate crimes and violence against the Transgendered , 1999 .

[9]  Naomi Ellemers,et al.  Working under cover: performance-related self-confidence among members of contextually devalued groups who try to pass , 2006 .

[10]  M. Hogg,et al.  Social Identity and Self-Categorization Processes in Organizational Contexts , 2000 .

[11]  J. Weinrich,et al.  The definition and scope of sexual orientation. , 1991 .

[12]  R. Fassinger.  From Invisibility to Integration: Lesbian Identity in the Workplace , 1995 .

[13]  S. Green,et al.  "What do you mean 'what's wrong with her?'": stigma and the lives of families of children with disabilities. , 2003, Social science & medicine.

[14]  E. Riggle,et al.  Out at work: The relation of actor and partner workplace policy and internalized homophobia to disclosure status , 2002 .

[15]  Graham Scambler,et al.  Being epileptic: coming to terms with stigma , 1986 .

[16]  I. Meyer.  Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. , 2003, Psychological bulletin.

[17]  R. Kahn,et al.  Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity. , 1965 .

[18]  Blake E. Ashforth,et al.  Role Transitions in Organizational Life : An Identity-based Perspective , 2001 .

[19]  Belle Rose Ragins,et al.  Making the invisible visible: fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. , 2007, The Journal of applied psychology.

[20]  Karen R. March.  Perception of Adoption as Social Stigma: Motivation for Search and Reunion. , 1995 .

[21]  Jeffrey T. Polzer,et al.  Finding Value in Diversity: Verification of Personal and Social Self-Views in Diverse Groups , 2004 .

[22]  A. Ryan,et al.  Antecedents and Potential Moderators of the Relationship Between Attitudes and Hiring Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation , 2003 .

[23]  Jennifer Crocker,et al.  Stigma: Introduction and overview. , 2000 .

[24]  S. B. Button,et al.  Organizational efforts to affirm sexual diversity: a cross-level examination. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[25]  Maureen A. Scully,et al.  Tempered Radicalism and the Politics of Ambivalence and Change , 2009 .

[26]  D. E. Frable,et al.  Predicting self-esteem, well-being, and distress in a cohort of gay men: the importance of cultural stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity. , 1997, Journal of personality.

[27]  B. R. Ragins,et al.  Positive Relationships at Work: An Introduction and Invitation. , 2007 .

[28]  D. Chavis,et al.  Sense of community: A definition and theory , 1986 .

[29]  Keith F Widaman,et al.  HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991-1999. , 2002, American journal of public health.

[30]  J. Croteau,et al.  Research on the Work Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual People: An Integrative Review of Methodology and Findings , 1996 .

[31]  Jim Blascovich,et al.  Stigma, threat, and social interactions. , 2000 .

[32]  D. E. Frable,et al.  Concealable Stigmas and Positive Self-Perceptions: Feeling Better Around Similar Others , 1998 .

[33]  P. Conrad,et al.  IN THE CLOSET WITH ILLNESS: EPILEPSY, STIGMA POTENTIAL AND INFORMATION CONTROL* , 1980 .

[34]  Todd F. Heatherton,et al.  The social psychology of stigma , 2001 .

[35]  D. Figart,et al.  Money, Myths, and Change: The Economic Lives of Lesbians and Gay Men , 2001 .

[36]  N. El-Bassel,et al.  Social Support and Disclosure of Abuse: Comparing South Asian, African American, and Hispanic Battered Women , 2003, Journal of Family Violence.

[37]  A. Gielen,et al.  Women's disclosure of HIV status: experiences of mistreatment and violence in an urban setting. , 1997, Women & health.

[38]  D. M. Green,et al.  Signal detection theory and psychophysics , 1966 .

[39]  Dianna L. Stone,et al.  A Model of Factors Affecting the Treatment of Disabled Individuals in Organizations , 1996 .

[40]  Gwen E. Jones.  Advancement opportunity issues for persons with disabilities , 1997 .

[41]  D L Stone,et al.  Perceived Discomfort Associated with Working with Persons with Varying Disabilities , 1995, Perceptual and motor skills.

[42]  L. Whiteford,et al.  Stigma: the hidden burden of infertility. , 1995, Social science & medicine.

[43]  W. Swann.  Identity negotiation: where two roads meet. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[44]  Frances Bowen,et al.  Spirals of Silence: The Dynamic Effects of Diversity on Organizational Voice , 2003 .

[45]  J. Puddifoot,et al.  Exploring “personal” and “shared” sense of community identity in Durham City, England , 2003 .

[46]  G. Herek.  The social psychology of homophobia: Toward a practical theory. , 1986 .

[47]  E. Goffman.  Stigma; Notes On The Management Of Spoiled Identity , 1964 .

[48]  Chris J. Sablynski,et al.  WHY PEOPLE STAY: USING JOB EMBEDDEDNESS TO PREDICT VOLUNTARY TURNOVER , 2001 .

[49]  S. Stryker,et al.  The Vitalization of Symbolic Interactionism , 1987 .

[50]  J. H. Davis,et al.  An Integrative Model Of Organizational Trust , 1995 .

[51]  L. F. Barrett,et al.  Intimacy as an interpersonal process: the importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[52]  R. Fassinger,et al.  Self-acceptance and self-disclosure of sexual orientation in Lesbian, Gay, and bisexual adults: An attachment perspective , 2003 .

[53]  C. Lawrence,et al.  Effects of exposure to occupational violence and the mediating impact of fear , 1997 .

[54]  William B. Swann,et al.  Self-Traps: The Elusive Quest for Higher Self-Esteem , 1996 .

[55]  Jay H. Lucas,et al.  Out Is In: Return of the Gay Nineties@@@Contested Closets: The Politics and Ethics of Outing.@@@Gay Cops.@@@Gays and the Military: Joseph Steffan versus the United States.@@@The Corporate Closet: The Professional Lives of Gay Men in America. , 1993 .

[56]  D M Wegner,et al.  Covering up what can't be seen: concealable stigma and mental control. , 1999, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[57]  E. E. Jones.  Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships , 1984 .

[58]  M. Leary,et al.  Disclosure of sexual orientation by lesbians and gay men : a comparison of private and public processes , 1991 .

[59]  V. Jenness,et al.  Hate Crimes: New Social Movements and the Politics of Violence. , 1999 .

[60]  L. F. Barrett,et al.  Appraisals of Prejudice and Discrimination , 1998 .

[61]  Maureen A. Scully,et al.  Songs of Ourselves , 2000 .

[62]  W. Creed.  Voice Lessons: Tempered Radicalism and the Use of Voice and Silence* , 2003 .

[63]  W. Griffitt,et al.  Rape: A sexual stigma? , 1983 .

[64]  H. Tajfel,et al.  The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. , 2004 .

[65]  C. Crandall,et al.  AIDS‐Related Stigmatization: Instrumental and Symbolic Attitudes , 1997 .

[66]  Don McNicol,et al.  A Primer of Signal Detection Theory , 1976 .

[67]  J. Pachankis,et al.  The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: a cognitive-affective-behavioral model. , 2007, Psychological bulletin.

[68]  Robert D. Schope.  The Decision to Tell , 2002 .

[69]  A. D’augelli,et al.  Disclosure of Sexual Orientation, Victimization, and Mental Health Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Older Adults , 2001 .

[70]  Riia K. Luhtanen.  Identity, Stigma Management, and Well-Being , 2002, Journal of lesbian studies.

[71]  B. R. Ragins,et al.  Heterosexism in the Workplace , 2003 .

[72]  Margaret H. Vickers,et al.  Life at work with “invisible” chronic illness (ICI): the “unseen”, unspoken, unrecognized dilemma of disclosure , 1997 .

[73]  Nancy E. Day,et al.  Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. , 1997 .

[74]  J Blascovich,et al.  Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[75]  H. Reis,et al.  Intimacy as an interpersonal process. , 1988 .

[76]  R. Cain,et al.  Stigma management and gay identity development. , 1991, Social work.

[77]  Carol T. Miller,et al.  Coping with stigma and prejudice. , 2000 .

[78]  P W Corrigan,et al.  Lessons from social psychology on discrediting psychiatric stigma. , 1999, The American psychologist.

[79]  Todd F. Heatherton,et al.  The hidden costs of hidden stigma. , 2000 .

[80]  Daniel M. Wegner,et al.  The cognitive consequences of secrecy. , 1995 .

[81]  John C. Turner,et al.  Social identity, personality, and the self-concept: A self-categorizing perspective. , 1999 .

[82]  Patrick W. Corrigan,et al.  Stigma and disclosure: Implications for coming out of the closet , 2003 .

[83]  J. Crocker,et al.  Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. , 1989 .

[84]  Beth E. Schneider.  Coming Out at Work , 1986 .

[85]  M. Lewis,et al.  A process model for understanding adaptation to sexual abuse: the role of shame in defining stigmatization. , 1996, Child abuse & neglect.

[86]  S. Fiske,et al.  The Handbook of Social Psychology , 1935 .

[87]  L. Muzzin,et al.  The experience of cancer. , 1994, Social science & medicine.

[88]  J. Sears,et al.  Overcoming heterosexism and homophobia : strategies that work , 1998 .

[89]  Tammy L. MacLean,et al.  Out of Sight But Not Out of Mind: Managing Invisible Social Identities in the Workplace , 2005 .

[90]  Janis S. Bohan.  Psychology and sexual orientation: Coming to terms. , 1996 .

[91]  G. Herek.  Hate crimes against lesbians and gay men. Issues for research and policy. , 1989, The American psychologist.

[92]  B. R. Ragins,et al.  Pink triangles: antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[93]  P. Ephross,et al.  The impact of hate violence on victims: emotional and behavioral responses to attacks. , 1994, Social work.

[94]  Jeffrey R. Edwards,et al.  Mechanisms Linking Work and Family: Clarifying the Relationship Between Work and Family Constructs , 2000 .

[95]  D M Wegner,et al.  Deep cognitive activation: a new approach to the unconscious. , 1997, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[96]  Donna Chrobot-Mason,et al.  Sexual Identity Management Strategies: An Exploration of Antecedents and Consequences , 2001 .

[97]  Graham L. Staines,et al.  Spillover Versus Compensation: A Review of the Literature on the Relationship Between Work and Nonwork , 1980 .

[98]  J. Susman,et al.  Disability, stigma and deviance. , 1994, Social science & medicine.

[99]  Miller Rj,et al.  Exploring the links between interpersonal trust and the reasons underlying gay and bisexual males' disclosure of their sexual orientation to their mothers. , 1999 .

[100]  P. Wright.  The Social Psychology of Organizations, (2nd Ed): Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn New York: Wiley, 1978, 838 pp. , 1979 .

[101]  T. Lituchy,et al.  Think manager—think male: a global phenomenon? , 1996 .

[102]  J. Dutton,et al.  Exploring positive relationships at work : building a theoretical and research foundation , 2007 .

[103]  A. M. Crawford,et al.  Stigma Associated With AIDS: A Meta-Analysis1 , 1996 .

[104]  Belle Rose Ragins,et al.  SEXUAL ORIENTATION IN THE WORKPLACE: THE UNIQUE WORK AND CAREER EXPERIENCES OF GAY, LESBIAN AND BISEXUAL WORKERS , 2004 .

[105]  Shelley E. Taylor,et al.  Accelerated Course of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Gay Men Who Conceal Their Homosexual Identity , 1996, Psychosomatic medicine.

[106]  A. D’augelli.  Developmental Implications of Victimization of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths , 1998 .

[107]  G. Herek,et al.  Symbolic Prejudice or Fear of Infection? A Functional Analysis of AIDS-Related Stigma Among Heterosexual Adults , 1998 .

[108]  E. Somer,et al.  Variables in delayed disclosure of childhood sexual abuse. , 2001, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[109]  Miller Rj,et al.  Trust and disclosure of sexual orientation in gay males' mother-son relationships. , 1999 .

[110]  L. Schlossberg,et al.  Passing: Identity and Interpretation in Sexuality, Race, and Religion , 2001 .

[111]  Mark R. Leary,et al.  Handbook of self and identity , 2003 .

[112]  N. Swanson,et al.  Psychosocial correlates of harassment, threats and fear of violence in the workplace. , 1997, Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health.

[113]  K. Jordan,et al.  Coming out for lesbian women: its relation to anxiety, positive affectivity, self-esteem, and social support. , 1998, Journal of homosexuality.

[114]  K. Wald,et al.  Private Lives, Public Conflicts: Battles over Gay Rights in American Communities , 1997 .

[115]  Donna Y. Stringer,et al.  Stigma and Acceptance of Persons With Disabilities , 2004 .

[116]  I. Sarason,et al.  General and relationship-based perceptions of social support: are two constructs better than one? , 1991, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[117]  R. Bolton,et al.  Social Support, Depression, and Self-Acceptance Among Gay Men , 1994 .

[118]  Linda D. Garnets,et al.  Lesbian and gay male dimensions in the psychological study of human diversity. , 1991 .

[119]  Gareth R. Jones,et al.  The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork , 1998 .