Materials, technological status, and fundamentals of PEM fuel cells – A review

Abstract PEM (Polymer Electrolyte Membrane) fuel cells have the potential to reduce our energy use, pollutant emissions, and dependence on fossil fuels. In the past decade, significant advances have been achieved for commercializing the technology. For example, several PEM fuel cell buses are currently rated at the technical readiness stage of full-scale validation in realistic driving environments and have met or closely met the ultimate 25,000-h target set by the U.S. Department of Energy. So far, Toyota has sold more than 4000 Mirai PEM fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). Over 30 hydrogen gas stations are being operated throughout the U.S. and over 60 in Germany. In this review, we cover the material, design, fundamental, and manufacturing aspects of PEM fuel cells with a focus on the portable, automobile, airplane, and space applications that require careful consideration in system design and materials. The technological status and challenges faced by PEM fuel cells toward their commercialization in these applications are described and explained. Fundamental issues that are key to fuel cell design, operational control, and material development, such as water and thermal management, dynamic operation, cold start, channel two-phase flow, and low-humidity operation, are discussed. Fuels and fuel tanks pertinent to PEM fuel cells are briefly evaluated. The objective of this review is three fold: (1) to present the latest status of PEM fuel cell technology development and applications in the portable and transportation power through an overview of the state of the art and most recent technological advances; (2) to describe materials and water/thermal transport management for fuel cell design and operational control; and (3) to outline major challenges in the technology development and the needs for fundamental research for the near future and prior to fuel cell world-wide deployment.

[1]  M. A. Zulkifley,et al.  A review of high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) system , 2017 .

[2]  Xavier Cordobes Adroher,et al.  Ex situ and modeling study of two-phase flow in a single channel of polymer electrolyte membrane fue , 2011 .

[3]  Hyunchul Ju,et al.  Development of Lightweight 200‐W Direct Methanol Fuel Cell System for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Applications and Flight Demonstration , 2014 .

[4]  Yun Wang,et al.  Modeling of two-phase transport in the diffusion media of polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2008 .

[5]  Jingtao Wang,et al.  Enhancement of proton conductivity of polymer electrolyte membrane enabled by sulfonated nanotubes , 2014 .

[6]  Karren L. More,et al.  Direct atomic-level insight into the active sites of a high-performance PGM-free ORR catalyst , 2017, Science.

[7]  Anuvat Sirivat,et al.  Development of Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) (Peek) with Inorganic Filler for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCS) , 2011 .

[8]  Karren L. More,et al.  Influence of ionomer content on the structure and performance of PEFC membrane electrode assemblies , 2010 .

[9]  Silvia Licoccia,et al.  Nafion–TiO2 hybrid membranes for medium temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) , 2005 .

[10]  D. J. Durbin,et al.  Review of hydrogen storage techniques for on board vehicle applications , 2013 .

[11]  Miguel Angel Mayosky,et al.  Sliding-Mode Control of PEM Fuel Cells , 2012 .

[12]  Yılser Devrim,et al.  PEM fuel cell short stack performances of silica doped nanocomposite membranes , 2015 .

[13]  Mina Hoorfar,et al.  Ex-situ Measurement of Properties of Gas Diffusion Layers of PEM Fuel Cells , 2012 .

[14]  Heli Wang,et al.  Stainless steel as bipolar plate material for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2003 .

[15]  Minkook Kim,et al.  Bipolar plates made of carbon fabric/phenolic composite reinforced with carbon black for PEMFC , 2013 .

[16]  Nikolay Kardjilov,et al.  Investigations on dynamic water transport characteristics in flow field channels using neutron imaging techniques , 2013 .

[17]  Jihong Wang,et al.  Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation , 2015 .

[18]  Front , 2020, 2020 Fourth World Conference on Smart Trends in Systems, Security and Sustainability (WorldS4).

[19]  Morteza Sadeghi,et al.  High performance polymeric bipolar plate based on polypropylene/graphite/graphene/nano-carbon black composites for PEM fuel cells , 2016 .

[20]  Wang Zhiyuan,et al.  Investigation of single-layer and multilayer coatings for aluminum bipolar plate in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell , 2014 .

[21]  Sheng Wen,et al.  Novel sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone)/silica coated carbon nanotubes high-performance composite membranes for direct methanol fuel cell , 2015 .

[22]  Wan Ramli Wan Daud,et al.  Coating of stainless steel and titanium bipolar plates for anticorrosion in PEMFC: A review , 2017 .

[23]  M. Radosavljevic,et al.  Carbon nanotube composites for thermal management , 2002, cond-mat/0205418.

[24]  Aicheng Chen,et al.  Palladium-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Electrochemical Applications. , 2015, Chemical reviews.

[25]  Felix Bauer,et al.  Influence of Temperature and Humidity on the Mechanical Properties of Nafion® 117 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane , 2005 .

[26]  Anita J. Hill,et al.  Nanocrack-regulated self-humidifying membranes , 2016, Nature.

[27]  Paul Leonard Adcock,et al.  New materials for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell current collectors , 1999 .

[28]  Takashi Iijima,et al.  Development of active catalysts for low Pt loading cathodes of PEMFC by surface tailoring of nanocarbon materials , 2005 .

[29]  Anders Kaestner,et al.  Neutron imaging methods for the investigation of energy related materials - Fuel cells, battery, hydrogen storage and nuclear fuel , 2015 .

[30]  Maj Mirmirani,et al.  Development of a Small Long Endurance Hybrid PEM Fuel Cell Powered UAV , 2007 .

[31]  P ? ? ? ? ? ? ? % ? ? ? ? , 1991 .

[32]  Xinmin Lai,et al.  Cr–N–C multilayer film on 316L stainless steel as bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells using closed field unbalanced magnetron sputter ion plating , 2013 .

[33]  Peter Bøggild,et al.  Multilayer graphene for long-term corrosion protection of stainless steel bipolar plates for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell , 2015 .

[34]  James Larminie,et al.  Fuel Cell Systems Explained , 2000 .

[35]  Abu Bakar Mohamad,et al.  Nafion / Silicon oxide / phosphotungstic acid nanocomposite membrane with enhanced proton conductivity. , 2009 .

[36]  Omar Solorza-Feria,et al.  Electrocatalysis of oxygen reduction on carbon supported Ru-based catalysts in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell , 2006 .

[37]  Tabbi Wilberforce,et al.  Numerical modelling and CFD simulation of a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell flow channel using an open pore cellular foam material. , 2019, The Science of the total environment.

[38]  David Blackwell,et al.  Water flow in the gas diffusion layer of PEM fuel cells , 2005 .

[39]  Zhuguo Li,et al.  Nitrogen plasma-implanted titanium as bipolar plates in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2010 .

[40]  A. T. Johnson,et al.  Mapping the One-Dimensional Electronic States of Nanotube Peapod Structures , 2002, Science.

[41]  Masayuki Nogami,et al.  Proton conducting organic–inorganic composite membranes under anhydrous conditions synthesized from tetraethoxysilane/methyltriethoxysilane/trimethyl phosphate and 1-butyl-3 methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate , 2010 .

[42]  Ken S. Chen,et al.  Advanced control of liquid water region in diffusion media of polymer electrolyte fuel cells through a dimensionless number , 2016 .

[43]  Silvia Licoccia,et al.  Organically functionalized titanium oxide/Nafion composite proton exchange membranes for fuel cells applications , 2014 .

[44]  Stephan Eelman,et al.  FUEL CELL APU’S IN COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT – AN ASSESSMENT OF SOFC AND PEMFC CONCEPTS , 2004 .

[45]  Arnaud G. Malan,et al.  Numerical and experimental study of the effects of the electrical resistance and diffusivity under clamping pressure on the performance of a metallic gas-diffusion layer in polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2016 .

[46]  Maria Chan,et al.  Ultralow-loading platinum-cobalt fuel cell catalysts derived from imidazolate frameworks , 2018, Science.

[47]  I. Eroglu,et al.  Facilitation of water management in low Pt loaded PEM fuel cell by creating hydrophobic microporous layer with PTFE, FEP and PDMS polymers: Effect of polymer and carbon amounts , 2017 .

[48]  Serdar Erkan,et al.  Nafion/titanium silicon oxide nanocomposite membranes for PEM fuel cells , 2013 .

[49]  Lionel Flandin,et al.  Polymer Composites Bipolar Plates for PEMFCs , 2012 .

[50]  Huei Peng,et al.  An experimental study and model validation of a membrane humidifier for PEM fuel cell humidification control , 2008 .

[51]  Cesare Pianese,et al.  Performance and degradation of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: State of the art in modeling from atomistic to system scale , 2016 .

[52]  Bruno G. Pollet,et al.  Development of PVD coatings for PEMFC metallic bipolar plates , 2013 .

[53]  G. G. Stokes "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[54]  Alexander Wokaun,et al.  Simultaneous neutron imaging of six operating PEFCs: Experimental set-up and study of the MPL effect , 2012 .

[55]  Thomas A. Trabold,et al.  In situ investigation of water transport in an operating PEM fuel cell using neutron radiography: Part 1 – Experimental method and serpentine flow field results , 2006 .

[56]  Qinghong Huang,et al.  An effective methanol-blocking membrane modified with graphene oxide nanosheets for passive direct methanol fuel cells , 2014 .

[57]  Waldemar Bujalski,et al.  High temperature (HT) polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) – A review , 2013 .

[58]  Yun Wang,et al.  A review of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: Technology, applications,and needs on fundamental research , 2011 .

[59]  Goodarz Ahmadi,et al.  Two-phase flow and droplet behavior in microchannels of PEM fuel cell , 2016 .

[60]  Mashallah Rezakazemi,et al.  Methods for the Preparation of Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for Fuel Cells , 2017 .

[61]  Yuta Nabae,et al.  Recent Progress in Non-precious Metal Fuel Cell Catalysts , 2018, Nanocarbons for Energy Conversion: Supramolecular Approaches.

[62]  Qiang Chen,et al.  Parallel cylindrical water nanochannels in Nafion fuel-cell membranes. , 2008, Nature materials.

[63]  D. Mahajan,et al.  Metal bipolar plates for PEM fuel cell—A review , 2007 .

[64]  S. Stankovich,et al.  Graphene-based composite materials , 2006, Nature.

[65]  Sung Chan Cho,et al.  Two-phase flow dynamics in a micro channel with heterogeneous surfaces , 2014 .

[66]  D. C. Trivedi,et al.  Chemical and electrochemical depositions of platinum group metals and their applications , 2005 .

[67]  L. Eudy Technology Validation: Fuel Cell Bus Evaluations , 2005 .

[68]  X. Sun,et al.  Graphene grown on stainless steel as a high-performance and ecofriendly anti-corrosion coating for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell bipolar plates , 2015 .

[69]  Thomas A. Trabold,et al.  In situ investigation of water transport in an operating PEM fuel cell using neutron radiography: Part 2 – Transient water accumulation in an interdigitated cathode flow field , 2006 .

[70]  Chao-Yang Wang,et al.  Transient analysis of polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2005 .

[71]  Werner Lehnert,et al.  Interface Resolving Two-phase Flow Simulations in Gas Channels Relevant for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells Using the Volume of Fluid Approach , 2018 .

[72]  M. Deyab,et al.  Corrosion protection of aluminum bipolar plates with polyaniline coating containing carbon nanotubes in acidic medium inside the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell , 2014 .

[73]  M. Amjadi,et al.  Investigation of physical properties and cell performance of Nafion/TiO2 nanocomposite membranes for high temperature PEM fuel cells , 2010 .

[74]  Bahman Shabani,et al.  Enhanced gas flow uniformity across parallel channel cathode flow field of Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells , 2017 .

[75]  Michael Eikerling,et al.  Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells: Physical Principles of Materials and Operation , 2014 .

[76]  Félix Barreras,et al.  Cr and Zr/Cr nitride CAE-PVD coated aluminum bipolar plates for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2010 .

[77]  Mohammad Mahdi Hasani-Sadrabadi,et al.  Nafion®/histidine functionalized carbon nanotube: High-performance fuel cell membranes , 2013 .

[78]  Chee Wei Tan,et al.  Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A review on power conditioning units and topologies , 2017 .

[79]  Amaresh Dalal,et al.  Sweeping of the entrapped fluid out of the groove in a three-dimensional channel using lattice Boltzmann method , 2018, European Journal of Mechanics - B/Fluids.

[80]  Mohamed Mahmoud Nasef,et al.  Radiation-grafted membranes for polymer electrolyte fuel cells: current trends and future directions. , 2014, Chemical reviews.

[81]  Hanshan Dong,et al.  Active screen plasma nitriding of 316 stainless steel for the application of bipolar plates in proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2014 .

[82]  Linfa Peng,et al.  Influence of Cr-C film composition on electrical and corrosion properties of 316L stainless steel as bipolar plates for PEMFCs , 2016 .

[83]  Werner Lehnert,et al.  Diffusion media materials and characterisation , 2010 .

[84]  Robert Steinberger-Wilckens,et al.  Gas Diffusion Layer Materials and their Effect on Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Performance – Ex Situ and In Situ Characterization , 2014 .

[85]  Wei Xing,et al.  Highly conductive, methanol resistant fuel cell membranes fabricated by layer-by-layer self-assembly of inorganic heteropolyacid , 2009 .

[86]  Li Chen,et al.  Effects of surface microstructures of gas diffusion layer on water droplet dynamic behaviors in a micro gas channel of proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2013 .

[87]  J. Narayana Das Fuel Cell Technologies for Defence Applications , 2017 .

[88]  Lu Guo,et al.  Corrosion behavior of TiN-coated stainless steel as bipolar plate for proton exchange membrane fuel cell , 2010 .

[89]  Masayuki Nogami,et al.  Inorganic–organic hybrid membranes with anhydrous proton conduction prepared from tetramethoxysilane/methyl-trimethoxysilane/trimethylphosphate and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide for H2/O2 fuel cells , 2010 .

[90]  Mark Pritzker,et al.  On the role of the microporous layer in PEMFC operation , 2009 .

[91]  Sumana Ghosh,et al.  Effects of channel diameter on flow pattern and pressure drop for air–water flow in serpentine gas channels of PEM fuel cell-An Ex situ experiment , 2019, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science.

[92]  Kenneth E. Goodson,et al.  Impact of channel geometry on two-phase flow in fuel cell microchannels , 2011 .

[93]  Gang Wu,et al.  Engineering nanostructures of PGM-free oxygen-reduction catalysts using metal-organic frameworks , 2017 .

[94]  Mohammad Mahdi Hasani-Sadrabadi,et al.  Ionic nanopeapods: Next-generation proton conducting membranes based on phosphotungstic acid filled carbon nanotube , 2016 .

[95]  Ken S. Chen,et al.  Elucidating two-phase transport in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell, Part 1: Characterizing flow regimes with a dimensionless group , 2011 .

[96]  S. Dharmalingam,et al.  An efficient proton conducting electrolyte membrane for high temperature fuel cell in aqueous-free medium , 2014 .

[97]  S. Y. Chen,et al.  Effect of morphological properties of ionic liquid-templated mesoporous anatase TiO2 on performance of PEMFC with Nafion/TiO2 composite membrane at elevated temperature and low relative humidity , 2007 .

[98]  S. Rowshanzamir,et al.  Review of the proton exchange membranes for fuel cell applications , 2010 .

[99]  Deborah J. Jones,et al.  Non-Fluorinated Polymer Materials for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells , 2003 .

[100]  Mu Pan,et al.  Impregnation of amine-tailored titanate nanotubes in polymer electrolyte membranes , 2012 .

[101]  Guangwei He,et al.  A highly proton-conducting, methanol-blocking Nafion composite membrane enabled by surface-coating crosslinked sulfonated graphene oxide. , 2016, Chemical communications.

[102]  Zhe Wang,et al.  Direct polymerization of a novel sulfonated poly(arylene ether ketone sulfone)/sulfonated poly(vinylalcohol) crosslinked membrane for direct methanol fuel cell applications , 2015 .

[103]  W. Goddard,et al.  Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes , 2000 .

[104]  Ken S. Chen,et al.  Droplet dynamics in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell gas flow channel: Forces, Deformation and detachment. II: Comparisons of analytical solution with numerical and experimental results , 2012 .

[105]  Jin Young Kim,et al.  Mussel‐Inspired Polydopamine‐Treated Reinforced Composite Membranes with Self‐Supported CeOx Radical Scavengers for Highly Stable PEM Fuel Cells , 2018, Advanced Functional Materials.

[106]  G. Squadrito,et al.  Nafion content in the catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: effects on structure and performance , 2001 .

[107]  Dimitri N. Mavris,et al.  Comparison of Design Methods for Fuel-Cell-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles , 2009 .

[108]  Brian D. Gurney,et al.  The Detection of Palladium Particles in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel-Cell Water by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) , 2011, Applied spectroscopy.

[109]  J. David Carter,et al.  Composite-coated aluminum bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells , 2013 .

[110]  Mahlon Wilson,et al.  Scientific aspects of polymer electrolyte fuel cell durability and degradation. , 2007, Chemical reviews.

[111]  Jean-Pol Dodelet,et al.  Recent Advances in Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction. , 2016, Chemical reviews.

[112]  M. Xiao,et al.  Cross-linked sulfonated poly(phathalazinone ether ketone)s for PEM fuel cell application as proton-exchange membrane , 2007 .

[113]  Danna Zhou,et al.  d. , 1934, Microbial pathogenesis.

[114]  Ayhan Albostan,et al.  Enhancement of PEM fuel cell performance at higher temperatures and lower humidities by high performance membrane electrode assembly based on Nafion/zeolite membrane , 2015 .

[115]  Reza Amrollahi,et al.  Improvement of corrosion and electrical conductivity of 316L stainless steel as bipolar plate by TiN nanoparticle implantation using plasma focus , 2012 .

[116]  Shimshon Gottesfeld,et al.  A New Approach to the Problem of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Fuel Cells Operating at Low Temperatures , 1988 .

[117]  D. Paul,et al.  ELECTRODE ASSEMBLY FOR USE IN A SOLID POLYMERELECTROLYTE FUEL CELL , 2017 .

[118]  Xianguo Li,et al.  Water transport in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2011 .

[119]  Cesare Pianese,et al.  Experimental validation of a lumped model of single droplet deformation, oscillation and detachment on the GDL surface of a PEM fuel cell , 2013 .

[120]  Yun Wang,et al.  PEM Fuel Cells: Thermal and Water Management Fundamentals , 2013 .

[121]  Ken S. Chen,et al.  Droplet dynamics in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell gas flow channel: Forces, deformation, and detachment. I: Theoretical and numerical analyses , 2012 .

[122]  Ching-Han Huang,et al.  Investigation of PVD coating on corrosion resistance of metallic bipolar plates in PEM fuel cell , 2003 .

[123]  Sung Chan Cho,et al.  Two-phase flow dynamics in a micro hydrophilic channel: A theoretical and experimental study , 2014 .

[124]  Shohji Tsushima,et al.  Soft X-ray visualization of the liquid water transport within the cracks of micro porous layer in PEMFC , 2011 .

[125]  Nieves Lapeña-Rey,et al.  First Fuel-Cell Manned Aircraft , 2010 .

[126]  Wolf-Dieter Domke,et al.  Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell , 2012 .

[127]  Kui Jiao,et al.  Cold start of proton exchange membrane fuel cell , 2018 .

[128]  Kui Jiao,et al.  Two-phase flow in the mixed-wettability gas diffusion layer of proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2018, Applied Energy.

[129]  Xinmin Lai,et al.  Multilayered Zr–C/a-C film on stainless steel 316L as bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2016 .

[130]  Yun Wang,et al.  Multi-layer configuration for the cathode electrode of polymer electrolyte fuel cell , 2010 .

[131]  Kenichiro Koga,et al.  Formation of ordered ice nanotubes inside carbon nanotubes , 2001, Nature.

[132]  Chao-Yang Wang,et al.  Dynamics of polymer electrolyte fuel cells undergoing load changes , 2006 .

[133]  Tsuyoshi Murata,et al.  {m , 1934, ACML.

[134]  Rodney L. Borup,et al.  Subfreezing operation of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Ice formation and cell performance loss , 2012 .

[135]  Teresa J. Leo,et al.  Exergy analysis of PEM fuel cells for marine applications , 2010 .

[136]  S. Haile Fuel cell materials and components , 2003 .

[137]  Marc Prat,et al.  Coupled continuum and condensation–evaporation pore network model of the cathode in polymer-electrolyte fuel cell , 2017 .

[138]  Ping Yu,et al.  PtCo/C cathode catalyst for improved durability in PEMFCs , 2005 .

[139]  Allen M. Hermann,et al.  Bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells: A review , 2005 .

[140]  Chhagan Lal,et al.  Hydrogen storage in Mg: A most promising material , 2010 .

[141]  Suman Basu,et al.  Modeling two-phase flow in PEM fuel cell channels , 2008 .

[142]  Yun Wang,et al.  Modeling discharge deposit formation and its effect on lithium-air battery performance , 2012 .

[143]  Ravindra Datta,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of Nafion®-MO2 (M = Zr, Si, Ti) nanocomposite membranes for higher temperature PEM fuel cells , 2005 .

[144]  Arunkumar Jayakumar,et al.  Manufacturing the Gas Diffusion Layer for PEM Fuel Cell Using a Novel 3D Printing Technique and Critical Assessment of the Challenges Encountered , 2017, Materials.

[145]  Yu Jun,et al.  Functionalized Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite Membrane for Low Humidity and High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells , 2011 .

[146]  P. Sui,et al.  FUEL CELLS – PROTON-EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS | Modeling , 2009 .

[147]  Jürgen Stumper,et al.  Recent advances in fuel cell technology at Ballard , 2008 .

[148]  Guangwei He,et al.  Novel sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone)/phosphonic acid-functionalized titania nanohybrid membrane by an in situ method for direct methanol fuel cells , 2015 .

[149]  Guobin Zhang,et al.  Multi-phase models for water and thermal management of proton exchange membrane fuel cell: A review , 2018, Journal of Power Sources.

[150]  Suresh G. Advani,et al.  Performance of a metallic gas diffusion layer for PEM fuel cells , 2008 .

[151]  Jooheon Kim,et al.  Crosslinked sulfonated poly(vinyl alcohol)/sulfonated multi-walled carbon nanotubes nanocomposite me , 2011 .

[152]  H. Yasuda,et al.  CHAPTER 10 – General Characteristics of Plasma Polymers , 1985 .

[153]  Kai Sundmacher,et al.  Understanding PEM fuel cell dynamics: The reversal curve , 2017 .

[154]  Xinmin Lai,et al.  Development and characterization of multilayered Cr–C/a-C:Cr film on 316L stainless steel as bipolar plates for proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2013 .

[155]  Marco Stampanoni,et al.  Investigation of liquid water in gas diffusion layers of polymer electrolyte fuel cells using X-ray tomographic microscopy , 2011 .

[156]  Chao-Yang Wang,et al.  Ultra large-scale simulation of polymer electrolyte fuel cells , 2006 .

[157]  Kyoungdoug Min,et al.  Analysis of the transient response and durability characteristics of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell with different micro-porous layer penetration thicknesses , 2013 .

[158]  Peng Chen,et al.  Self-assembled graphene film to enable highly conductive and corrosion resistant aluminum bipolar plates in fuel cells , 2017 .

[159]  Satish G. Kandlikar,et al.  Uneven gas diffusion layer intrusion in gas channel arrays of proton exchange membrane fuel cell and its effects on flow distribution , 2009 .

[160]  Rodney L. Borup,et al.  FC-PAD: Fuel Cell Performance and Durability Consortium , 2018 .

[161]  Zandrie Borneman,et al.  Ionic liquid doped polybenzimidazole membranes for high temperature Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell applications , 2013 .

[162]  Ayhan Bozkurt,et al.  Nanocomposite membranes based on sulfonated polysulfone and sulfated nano-titania/NMPA for proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2014 .

[163]  Yun Wang,et al.  Investigating the pressure loss associated with two-phase flow in a rectangular microchannel suddenly expanding into a manifold , 2018, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.

[164]  Malcolm L. H. Green,et al.  A simple chemical method of opening and filling carbon nanotubes , 1994, Nature.

[165]  Alex Jarauta,et al.  Numerical study of droplet dynamics in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell gas channel using an embedded Eulerian-Lagrangian approach , 2016 .

[166]  M. Javanbakht,et al.  Fabrication BaZrO3/PBI-based nanocomposite as a new proton conducting membrane for high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2015 .

[167]  Zhigang Shao,et al.  Development of proton-conducting membrane based on incorporating a proton conductor 1,2,4-triazolium methanesulfonate into the Nafion membrane , 2015 .

[168]  George Crabtree,et al.  The hydrogen economy , 2006, IEEE Engineering Management Review.

[169]  Atsushi Ogawa,et al.  Nonhumidified intermediate temperature fuel cells using protic ionic liquids. , 2010, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[170]  John P. Kopasz,et al.  2017 Bipolar Plate Workshop Summary Report , 2017 .

[171]  Jo Hermans The challenge of energy-efficient transportation , 2017 .

[172]  Kui Jiao,et al.  Multi‐phase simulation of proton exchange membrane fuel cell with 3D fine mesh flow field , 2018, International Journal of Energy Research.

[173]  Karel Bouzek,et al.  Polymer-supported 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate and 1-ethylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate as electrolytes for the high temperature PEM-type fuel cell , 2013 .

[174]  Mark K. Debe,et al.  Electrocatalyst approaches and challenges for automotive fuel cells , 2012, Nature.

[175]  Liang Hao,et al.  Capillary pressures in carbon paper gas diffusion layers having hydrophilic and hydrophobic pores , 2012 .

[176]  Hamid Khorsand,et al.  Carbon coating for corrosion protection of SS-316L and AA-6061 as bipolar plates of PEM fuel cells , 2014 .

[177]  Young Soo Yoon,et al.  Corrosion and electrical properties of CrN- and TiN-coated 316L stainless steel used as bipolar plates for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2013 .

[178]  Xin-bo Zhang,et al.  Boron- and nitrogen-based chemical hydrogen storage materials , 2009 .

[179]  Jin Hyun Nam,et al.  Microporous layer for water morphology control in PEMFC , 2009 .

[180]  R. A. Antunes,et al.  Corrosion of metal bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells: A review , 2010 .

[181]  Piercarlo Mustarelli,et al.  Polymer and Composite Membranes for Proton-Conducting, High-Temperature Fuel Cells: A Critical Review , 2017, Materials.

[182]  Ebrahim Afshari,et al.  An investigation of the PEM fuel cells performance with partially restricted cathode flow channels and metal foam as a flow distributor , 2017 .

[183]  José L. Fernández,et al.  Thermodynamic guidelines for the design of bimetallic catalysts for oxygen electroreduction and rapid screening by scanning electrochemical microscopy. M-co (M: Pd, Ag, Au). , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[184]  Lu Guo,et al.  TiN-coated titanium as the bipolar plate for PEMFC by multi-arc ion plating , 2011 .

[185]  Chung-Gil Kang,et al.  Fabrication of Aluminum Bipolar Plates by Semi‐solid Forging Process and Performance Test of TiN Coated Aluminum Bipolar Plates , 2014 .

[186]  Aliaksandr S. Bandarenka,et al.  Degradation mechanisms in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells caused by freeze-cycles: Investigation using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy , 2019, Electrochimica Acta.

[187]  John Banhart,et al.  Synchrotron X-ray tomography for investigations of water distribution in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells , 2011 .

[188]  A. A. Akhil,et al.  Electrical analysis of Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells for electrical power generation on-board commercial airplanes , 2012, 2012 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC).

[189]  Carsten Agert,et al.  Anhydrous proton conducting membranes based on electron-deficient nanoparticles/PBI-OO/PFSA composites for high-temperature PEMFC , 2009 .

[190]  Edmar P. Marques,et al.  A review of Fe-N/C and Co-N/C catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction , 2008 .

[191]  Qiu Gen Zhang,et al.  Orderly sandwich-shaped graphene oxide/Nafion composite membranes for direct methanol fuel cells , 2015 .

[192]  F. T. Bacon Fuel cells, past, present and future☆ , 1969 .

[193]  P. Adcock,et al.  Stainless steel as a bipolar plate material for solid polymer fuel cells , 2000 .

[194]  Rodney L. Borup,et al.  Cold start of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: Three-stage startup characterization , 2010 .