Research Article Learning in Color: How Color and Affect Influence Learning Outcomes

Research problem: The purpose of the study is to understand how affective reactions to color impact learning attitudes and outcomes in a computer-mediated learning environment. Research question: How do color differences change affective processes and outcomes in computer-mediated communication? Literature review: Several previous studies exploring particular characteristics and learning in computer-mediated environments influenced the review of the literature. The literature on color psychology indicates that color preferences and affective reactions to color can influence behaviors and attitudes. The literature on goal achievement motivation posits that affective dispositions influence goal orientation, motivation, and individual outcomes. The literature on affect infers that affective reactions are responses to events, and these reactions influence attitudes and behaviors. The current study draws on these prior studies to examine affective reaction to color and learning outcomes in a computer-mediated learning environment. Methodology: We conducted a quasiexperimental study with 79 participants, who listened to a visual presentation lecture with either blue or yellow background and then completed a survey on their affective reactions, learning attitudes, and outcomes. Results and discussion: The results of our study indicate that color is not neutral and may influence learning attitudes and outcomes and, hence, the color of computer technology interface design can influence learning outcomes. Practitioners and academics must take people's affective reactions to color into account in designs and studies of visual information presentations. The sample size and the focus on two color hues (yellow and blue) may have some limitations on the conclusions and generalizability of this study. Future studies should examine more color hues and color saturation to further our understanding of affective reactions to colors and consequent impact on attitudes and behavioral outcomes.

[1]  Robert A. Wisher,et al.  THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB-BASED AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: , 2006 .

[2]  J. C. Núñez,et al.  Multiple goals, motivation and academic learning. , 2003, The British journal of educational psychology.

[3]  J. Harackiewicz,et al.  Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. , 1996 .

[4]  D. Watson,et al.  Negative affectivity: the disposition to experience aversive emotional states. , 1984, Psychological bulletin.

[5]  J. Guilford,et al.  A system of color-preferences. , 1949, The American journal of psychology.

[6]  C. Dweck,et al.  Goals: an approach to motivation and achievement. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[7]  W. Crozier,et al.  The psychology of colour preferences , 1997 .

[8]  A. Elliot.  Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals , 1999 .

[9]  Xiaowei Ma,et al.  Research on Color's Effect on Learning Efficiency and Its Use in Multimedia Courseware , 2010, 2010 Second International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science.

[10]  R. Larsen,et al.  Intensity and frequency: dimensions underlying positive and negative affect. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[11]  Fred D. Davis,et al.  Improving Computer Training Effectiveness for Decision Technologies: Behavior Modeling and Retention Enhancement , 2001, Decis. Sci..

[12]  A. Brief,et al.  Organizational behavior: affect in the workplace. , 2002, Annual review of psychology.

[13]  D. Watson,et al.  Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[14]  Starr Roxanne Hiltz,et al.  Asynchronous learning networks as a virtual classroom , 1997, CACM.

[15]  Charles E. Osgood,et al.  A Cross-Cultural Study of the Affective Meanings of Color , 1973 .

[16]  Lindsay W. MacDonald,et al.  Tutorial: Using Color Effectively in Computer Graphics , 1999, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[17]  Ronald J. Vetter,et al.  Using Color and Text in Multimedia Projections , 1995, IEEE Multim..

[18]  Mark G. Simkin,et al.  Teaching End-User Applications with Computer-Based Training: Theory and an Empirical Investigation , 1995 .

[19]  E. Salas,et al.  Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. , 1993 .

[20]  Izak Benbasat,et al.  An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Color and Graphical Information Presentation Under Varying Time Constraints , 1986, MIS Q..

[21]  Robert D. Bretz,et al.  Comparing traditional and integrative learning methods in organizational training programs. , 1992 .

[22]  R. Mehta,et al.  Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color on Cognitive Task Performances , 2009, Science.

[23]  Venkatesh,et al.  Computer Technology Training in the Workplace: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Effect of Mood. , 1999, Organizational behavior and human decision processes.

[24]  Fred D. Davis,et al.  Improving computer skill training: behavior modeling, symbolic mental rehearsal, and the role of knowledge structures. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[25]  Fred D. Davis,et al.  Developing and Validating an Observational Learning Model of Computer Software Training and Skill Acquisition , 2003, Inf. Syst. Res..

[26]  Merrill Warkentin,et al.  Virtual Teams versus Face-to-Face Teams: An Exploratory Study of a Web-based Conference System* , 1997 .

[27]  Carole A. Ames,et al.  Achievement Goals in the Classroom: Students' Learning Strategies and Motivation Processes , 1988 .

[28]  Charles I. Brooks,et al.  Effect of Ballot Color, Sex of Candidate, and Sex of College Students of Voting Age on Their Voting Behavior , 1987 .

[29]  A. Choungourian.  Color Preferences and Cultural Variation , 1968, Perceptual and motor skills.

[30]  Reinhard Pekrun,et al.  The Effect of Red on Avoidance Behavior in Achievement Contexts , 2009, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[31]  Winston Bennett,et al.  Effectiveness of training in organizations: a meta-analysis of design and evaluation features. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[32]  Rajeev Sharma,et al.  The Contingent Effects of Training, Technical Complexity, and Task Interdependence on Successful Information Systems Implementation , 2007, MIS Q..

[33]  Starr Roxanne Hiltz,et al.  Mediators of the effectiveness of online courses , 2003 .

[34]  A.G. Gross,et al.  The Structure of PowerPoint Presentations: The Art of Grasping Things Whole , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication.

[35]  R. Gagne.  Learning outcomes and their effects: Useful categories of human performance. , 1984 .

[36]  Alan R. Dennis,et al.  Media, Tasks, and Communication Processes: A Theory of Media Synchronicity , 2008, MIS Q..

[37]  Naz Kaya,et al.  Relationship between color and emotion: A study of college students. , 2004 .

[38]  J. Mathieu,et al.  Toward Theoretically Based Principles of Training Effectiveness: A Model and Initial Empirical Investigation , 1995 .

[39]  H. Weiss,et al.  Affective Events Theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. , 1996 .

[40]  Thomas W. Ferratt,et al.  End user training: an experimental comparison of lecture versus computer-based training , 1997 .

[41]  Mary Ainley,et al.  Connecting with Learning: Motivation, Affect and Cognition in Interest Processes , 2006 .

[42]  Kennon M. Sheldon,et al.  Avoidance Personal Goals and Subjective Well-Being , 1997, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[43]  A. Elliot,et al.  A 2 X 2 achievement goal framework. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[44]  B. Mikellides,et al.  Colour and Physiological Arousal , 1988 .

[45]  A. Elliot,et al.  A HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION , 1997 .

[46]  Yujong Hwang,et al.  Understanding Affective Commitment, Collectivist Culture, and Social Influence in Relation to Knowledge Sharing in Technology Mediated Learning , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication.

[47]  J. Colquitt,et al.  Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: a meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[48]  Amitava Chattopadhyay,et al.  Effects of Color as an Executional Cue in Advertising: They're in the Shade , 1997 .

[49]  Michel Tenenhaus,et al.  PLS path modeling , 2005, Comput. Stat. Data Anal..

[50]  K. Jacobs,et al.  Effects of Four Psychological Primary Colors on Anxiety State , 1975, Perceptual and motor skills.

[51]  A. Isen,et al.  Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving , 1987 .

[52]  William J. Kettinger,et al.  The Use of Computer‐mediated Communication in an Interorganizational Context , 1997 .

[53]  P. Valdez,et al.  Effects of color on emotions. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[54]  Blake Ives,et al.  Web-based Virtual Learning Environments: a Research Framework and a Preliminary Assessment of Effectiveness in Basic It Skills Training Author(s): Piccoli Et Al./web-based Virtual Learning Environments Web-based Virtual Learning Environments: a Research Framework and a Preliminary Assessment of Effe , 2022 .

[55]  Dorothy E. Leidner,et al.  Research Commentary: Technology-Mediated Learning - A Call for Greater Depth and Breadth of Research , 2001, Inf. Syst. Res..

[56]  Robert M. Gagné,et al.  Educational Technology and the Learning Process1 , 1974 .

[57]  Jo Mackiewicz,et al.  Perceptions of Clarity and Attractiveness in PowerPoint Graph Slides , 2007 .

[58]  Mohamed Khalifa,et al.  Web-based learning: effects on learning process and outcome , 2002, IEEE Trans. Educ..

[59]  Markus A. Maier,et al.  Mediation of the Negative Effect of Red on Intellectual Performance , 2008, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[60]  M. Frank,et al.  The dark side of self- and social perception: black uniforms and aggression in professional sports. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[61]  Scotty D. Craig,et al.  Affect and learning: An exploratory look into the role of affect in learning with AutoTutor , 2004 .

[62]  Maryam Alavi,et al.  Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: An Empirical Evaluation , 1994, MIS Q..

[63]  N. Schmitt,et al.  THE INFLUENCE OF TRAINEE ATTITUDES ON TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS: TEST OF A MODEL , 1986 .