Global civil aviation black carbon emissions.

Aircraft black carbon (BC) emissions contribute to climate forcing, but few estimates of BC emitted by aircraft at cruise exist. For the majority of aircraft engines the only BC-related measurement available is smoke number (SN)-a filter based optical method designed to measure near-ground plume visibility, not mass. While the first order approximation (FOA3) technique has been developed to estimate BC mass emissions normalized by fuel burn [EI(BC)] from SN, it is shown that it underestimates EI(BC) by >90% in 35% of directly measured cases (R(2) = -0.10). As there are no plans to measure BC emissions from all existing certified engines-which will be in service for several decades-it is necessary to estimate EI(BC) for existing aircraft on the ground and at cruise. An alternative method, called FOX, that is independent of the SN is developed to estimate BC emissions. Estimates of EI(BC) at ground level are significantly improved (R(2) = 0.68), whereas estimates at cruise are within 30% of measurements. Implementing this approach for global civil aviation estimated aircraft BC emissions are revised upward by a factor of ~3. Direct radiative forcing (RF) due to aviation BC emissions is estimated to be ~9.5 mW/m(2), equivalent to ~1/3 of the current RF due to aviation CO2 emissions.

[1]  Charles A. Brock,et al.  In situ observations and model calculations of black carbon emission by aircraft at cruise altitude , 1999 .

[2]  Philip D. Whitefield,et al.  DELTA - ATLANTA HARTSFIELD (UNA-UNA) STUDY , 2008 .

[3]  U. Lohmann,et al.  Simulating the global atmospheric black carbon cycle: a revisit to the contribution of aircraft emissions , 2004 .

[4]  Martin Plohr,et al.  Experimental Test of the Influence of Propulsion Efficiency on Contrail Formation , 2000 .

[5]  Prem Lobo,et al.  Commercial aircraft engine emissions characterization of in-use aircraft at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[6]  A. L. Nichols,et al.  Development and Characterization of a Smoke Generator for the Calibration of Aerosol Emissions from Gas Turbine Engines , 1990 .

[7]  David S. Lee,et al.  Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Aviation , 2009, Atmospheric Environment.

[8]  David S. Lee,et al.  Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century , 2009, Atmospheric Environment.

[9]  A. Döpelheuer,et al.  Influence of engine performance on emission characteristics , 1999 .

[10]  Changlie Wey,et al.  Overview on the Aircraft Particle Emissions Experiment , 2007 .

[11]  Marc E.J. Stettler,et al.  Rapid estimation of global civil aviation emissions with uncertainty quantification , 2013 .

[12]  John S. Kinsey,et al.  Physical characterization of the fine particle emissions from commercial aircraft engines during the Aircraft Particle Emissions eXperiment (APEX) 1–3 , 2010 .

[13]  Yousef S.H. Najjar,et al.  SOOT FORMATION IN GAS TURBINE COMBUSTORS , 1987 .

[14]  Marc E.J. Stettler,et al.  Air quality and public health impacts of UK airports. Part I: Emissions , 2011 .

[15]  Steven R H Barrett,et al.  Global mortality attributable to aircraft cruise emissions. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[16]  David Raper,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions from the combustion of alternative fuels in a gas turbine engine. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[17]  A. Döpelheuer,et al.  Reexamination of Black Carbon Mass Emission Indices of a Jet Engine , 1998 .

[18]  Ian M. Kennedy,et al.  Models of soot formation and oxidation , 1997 .

[19]  C. Hurley.  Smoke measurements inside a gas turbine combustor , 1993 .

[20]  Richard C. Miake-Lye,et al.  Chemical Properties of Aircraft Engine Particulate Exhaust Emissions , 2009 .

[21]  Gregg G Fleming,et al.  Methodology to Estimate Particulate Matter Emissions from Certified Commercial Aircraft Engines , 2009, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[22]  Michael T. Timko,et al.  Gas Turbine Engine Emissions—Part II: Chemical Properties of Particulate Matter , 2010 .

[23]  Fangqun Yu,et al.  A 0D aircraft engine emission model with detailed chemistry and soot microphysics , 2012 .

[24]  David Raper,et al.  Evaluation of methods for measuring particulate matter emissions from gas turbines. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[25]  Z. Wena,et al.  Modeling soot formation in turbulent kerosene / air jet diffusion flames , 2003 .

[26]  David R. Cocker,et al.  Characterization of chemical and particulate emissions from aircraft engines , 2008 .

[27]  Reinhold Busen,et al.  Influence of fuel sulfur on the composition of aircraft exhaust plumes: The experiments SULFUR 1–7 , 2002 .

[28]  Ian A. Waitz,et al.  Summarizing and Interpreting Aircraft Gaseous and Particulate Emissions Data , 2008 .

[29]  Bernd Kärcher,et al.  Role of aircraft soot emissions in contrail formation , 2009 .

[30]  Marc E.J. Stettler,et al.  Air quality and public health impacts of UK airports. Part II: Impacts and policy assessment , 2013 .

[31]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Analysis of emission data from global commercial aviation: 2004 and 2006 , 2010 .

[32]  Hsi-Wu Wong,et al.  An algorithm to estimate aircraft cruise black carbon emissions for use in developing a cruise emissions inventory , 2013, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[33]  Marc E.J. Stettler,et al.  Updated Correlation Between Aircraft Smoke Number and Black Carbon Concentration , 2013 .

[34]  D. L. Champagne.  Standard Measurement of Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Exhaust Smoke , 1971 .

[35]  Prem Lobo,et al.  Comparison of PM emissions from a commercial jet engine burning conventional, biomass, and Fischer-Tropsch fuels. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.