GPCRs and fibroblast heterogeneity in fibroblast‐associated diseases

G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest and most diverse class of signaling receptors. GPCRs regulate many functions in the human body and have earned the title of “most targeted receptors”. About one‐third of the commercially available drugs for various diseases target the GPCRs. Fibroblasts lay the architectural skeleton of the body, and play a key role in supporting the growth, maintenance, and repair of almost all tissues by responding to the cellular cues via diverse and intricate GPCR signaling pathways. This review discusses the dynamic architecture of the GPCRs and their intertwined signaling in pathological conditions such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, cardiac fibrosis, pancreatic fibrosis, hepatic fibrosis, and cancer as opposed to the GPCR signaling of fibroblasts in physiological conditions. Understanding the dynamics of GPCR signaling in fibroblasts with disease progression can help in the recognition of the complex interplay of different GPCR subtypes in fibroblast‐mediated diseases. This review highlights the importance of designing and adaptation of next‐generation strategies such as GPCR‐omics, focused target identification, polypharmacology, and effective personalized medicine approaches to achieve better therapeutic outcomes for fibrosis and fibrosis associated malignancies.

[1]  S. Thorpe,et al.  Retinoic acid receptor β modulates mechanosensing and invasion in pancreatic cancer cells via myosin light chain 2 , 2023, Oncogenesis.

[2]  Shukun Zhang,et al.  S1P/S1PR2 promote pancreatic stellate cell activation and pancreatic fibrosis in chronic pancreatitis by regulating autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome. , 2023, Chemico-biological interactions.

[3]  Yanzhi Guo,et al.  Multi-omics integration analysis of GPCRs in pan-cancer to uncover inter-omics relationships and potential driver genes , 2023, Comput. Biol. Medicine.

[4]  N. Örmeci Endothelins and liver cirrhosis , 2022, Portal Hypertension & Cirrhosis.

[5]  Xue-yong Qi,et al.  A new approach based on CXCR4-targeted combination liposomes for the treatment of liver fibrosis. , 2022, Biomaterials science.

[6]  C. Wu,et al.  Subpopulations of cancer-associated fibroblasts link the prognosis and metabolic features of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma , 2022, Annals of translational medicine.

[7]  N. Nesseler,et al.  The Role of Catecholamines in Pathophysiological Liver Processes , 2022, Cells.

[8]  Daqiang Sun,et al.  The association between different hormone replacement therapy use and the incidence of lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2022, Journal of thoracic disease.

[9]  N. Kaminski,et al.  A lung targeted miR-29 mimic as a therapy for pulmonary fibrosis , 2021, bioRxiv.

[10]  N. Tanaka,et al.  Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Hepatic Stellate Cells and Approaches to Anti-Fibrotic Treatment of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease , 2021, Frontiers in Endocrinology.

[11]  Sean M. Hartig,et al.  Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor 4 Promotes Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis by Activating NLRP3 Inflammasome , 2021, Cellular and molecular gastroenterology and hepatology.

[12]  Hu Zhang,et al.  Roles of G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in Gastrointestinal Cancers: Focus on Sphingosine 1-Shosphate Receptors, Angiotensin II Receptors, and Estrogen-Related GPCRs , 2021, Cells.

[13]  B. Ding,et al.  Dopamine receptor D2 antagonization normalizes profibrotic macrophage-endothelial crosstalk in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. , 2021, Journal of hepatology.

[14]  V. Nincevic,et al.  Targeting the Wnt Signaling Pathway in Liver Fibrosis for Drug Options: An Update , 2021, Journal of clinical and translational hepatology.

[15]  J. Elmquist,et al.  Cannabinoid receptor-1 signaling in hepatocytes and stellate cells does not contribute to NAFLD. , 2021, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[16]  Yirong Chen,et al.  Saikosaponin-d alleviates hepatic fibrosis through regulating GPER1/autophagy signaling , 2021, Molecular Biology Reports.

[17]  G. Geisslinger,et al.  Proton-Sensing GPCRs in Health and Disease , 2021, Cells.

[18]  N. Rosenthal,et al.  Fibroblasts: Origins, definitions, and functions in health and disease , 2021, Cell.

[19]  Ezhilarasan Devaraj Relaxin in hepatic fibrosis: What is known and where to head? , 2021, Biochimie.

[20]  J. Iovanna,et al.  Targeting Fibrosis: The Bridge That Connects Pancreatitis and Pancreatic Cancer , 2021, International journal of molecular sciences.

[21]  M. Aschner,et al.  Pivotal Role of TGF-β/Smad Signaling in Cardiac Fibrosis: Non-coding RNAs as Effectual Players , 2021, Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine.

[22]  A. Marino Gammazza,et al.  Plausible Role of Estrogens in Pathogenesis, Progression and Therapy of Lung Cancer , 2021, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[23]  B. Harvey,et al.  Sexual Dimorphism in Colon Cancer , 2020, Frontiers in Oncology.

[24]  S. Cook,et al.  Interleukin-11 signaling underlies fibrosis, parenchymal dysfunction, and chronic inflammation of the airway , 2020, Experimental & Molecular Medicine.

[25]  T. Luedde,et al.  Roles of CCR2 and CCR5 for Hepatic Macrophage Polarization in Mice With Liver Parenchymal Cell-Specific NEMO Deletion , 2020, Cellular and molecular gastroenterology and hepatology.

[26]  S. Lewin,et al.  Intrahepatic CXCL10 is strongly associated with liver fibrosis in HIV-Hepatitis B co-infection , 2020, PLoS pathogens.

[27]  P. Zhai,et al.  Blockade of Fibroblast YAP Attenuates Cardiac Fibrosis and Dysfunction Through MRTF-A Inhibition , 2020, JACC. Basic to translational science.

[28]  Liying Li,et al.  Macrophage Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor 2 Blockade Attenuates Liver Inflammation and Fibrogenesis Triggered by NLRP3 Inflammasome , 2020, Frontiers in Immunology.

[29]  Jinfeng Zhao,et al.  The Role and Mechanism of S1PR5 in Colon Cancer , 2020, Cancer management and research.

[30]  Sang -Geon Kim,et al.  Gα12/13 signaling in metabolic diseases , 2020, Experimental & Molecular Medicine.

[31]  M. M. van der Eerden,et al.  Prevalence and abundance of selected genes conferring macrolide resistance genes in COPD patients during maintenance treatment with azithromycin , 2020, Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control.

[32]  M. Martínez-Chantar,et al.  The L‐α‐Lysophosphatidylinositol/G Protein–Coupled Receptor 55 System Induces the Development of Nonalcoholic Steatosis and Steatohepatitis , 2020, Hepatology.

[33]  Pengbo Wang,et al.  Group II muscarinic acetylcholine receptors attenuate hepatic injury via Nrf2/ARE pathway. , 2020, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[34]  H. Kurose,et al.  Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of Cardiac Fibrosis and Cancer: Focusing on TGF-β Signaling , 2020, Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine.

[35]  P. Insel,et al.  GPCRs in pancreatic adenocarcinoma: Contributors to tumour biology and novel therapeutic targets , 2020, British journal of pharmacology.

[36]  J. Wood,et al.  Collecting Occupational Exposure Data Would Strengthen Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Registries , 2020, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[37]  A. Haak,et al.  Targeting GPCR Signaling for Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Therapies. , 2020, Trends in pharmacological sciences.

[38]  Francesca N. Delling,et al.  Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2020 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association , 2020, Circulation.

[39]  F. Tacke,et al.  Targeting CCR2/5 in the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and fibrosis: opportunities and challenges , 2020, Expert opinion on investigational drugs.

[40]  Bicheng Chen,et al.  Molecular Mechanism of Pancreatic Stellate Cells Activation in Chronic Pancreatitis and Pancreatic Cancer , 2020, Journal of Cancer.

[41]  P. ten Dijke,et al.  A Perspective on the Development of TGF-β Inhibitors for Cancer Treatment , 2019, Biomolecules.

[42]  M. Ferrer,et al.  Therapeutic effects of a small molecule agonist of the relaxin receptor ML290 in liver fibrosis , 2019, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[43]  V. Aidinis,et al.  Deregulated Lysophosphatidic Acid Metabolism and Signaling in Liver Cancer , 2019, Cancers.

[44]  P. Fishman,et al.  The A3 adenosine receptor agonist, namodenoson, ameliorates non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in mice , 2019, International journal of molecular medicine.

[45]  V. Shah,et al.  Selective YAP/TAZ inhibition in fibroblasts via dopamine receptor D1 agonism reverses fibrosis , 2019, Science Translational Medicine.

[46]  M. Reilly,et al.  Endothelial Foxp1 Regulates Pathological Cardiac Remodeling Through TGF-β1-Endothelin-1 Signal Pathway. , 2019, Circulation.

[47]  Jing Tang,et al.  Parathyroid hormone-related protein activates HSCs via hedgehog signalling during liver fibrosis development , 2019, Artificial cells, nanomedicine, and biotechnology.

[48]  Shuangyu Lv,et al.  Apelin promotes hepatic fibrosis through ERK signaling in LX-2 cells , 2019, Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry.

[49]  X. Lv,et al.  Expression of neuropeptide Y is increased in an activated human HSC cell line , 2019, Scientific Reports.

[50]  T. Vahlberg,et al.  Demographics and survival of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in the FinnishIPF registry , 2019, ERJ Open Research.

[51]  P. Insel,et al.  GPCRomics: An Approach to Discover GPCR Drug Targets. , 2019, Trends in pharmacological sciences.

[52]  M. Karsdal,et al.  Collagens and Cancer associated fibroblasts in the reactive stroma and its relation to Cancer biology , 2019, Journal of experimental & clinical cancer research : CR.

[53]  Francesca N. Delling,et al.  Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2019 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association , 2019, Circulation.

[54]  V. Gurevich,et al.  GPCR Signaling Regulation: The Role of GRKs and Arrestins , 2019, Front. Pharmacol..

[55]  H. Carter,et al.  GPCRs show widespread differential mRNA expression and frequent mutation and copy number variation in solid tumors , 2019, bioRxiv.

[56]  Zhaoyu Li,et al.  Regulation of sex hormone receptors in sexual dimorphism of human cancers. , 2018, Cancer letters.

[57]  Prashanth Rawla,et al.  Epidemiology of gastric cancer: global trends, risk factors and prevention , 2018, Przeglad gastroenterologiczny.

[58]  W. Weis,et al.  The Molecular Basis of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Activation. , 2018, Annual review of biochemistry.

[59]  Jianyu Hao,et al.  A Rising Star in Pancreatic Diseases: Pancreatic Stellate Cells , 2018, Front. Physiol..

[60]  Hiroshi Yokouchi,et al.  GPCRomics: GPCR Expression in Cancer Cells and Tumors Identifies New, Potential Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets , 2018, Front. Pharmacol..

[61]  M. Akagi,et al.  Cyclic compressive loading activates angiotensin II type 1 receptor in articular chondrocytes and stimulates hypertrophic differentiation through a G‐protein‐dependent pathway , 2018, FEBS open bio.

[62]  J. Légaré,et al.  Connective tissue growth factor expression after angiotensin II exposure is dependent on transforming growth factor-β signaling via the canonical Smad-dependent pathway in hypertensive induced myocardial fibrosis , 2018, Journal of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system : JRAAS.

[63]  Francesca N. Delling,et al.  Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association , 2018, Circulation.

[64]  B. Hinz,et al.  The fibronectin ED-A domain enhances recruitment of latent TGF-β-binding protein-1 to the fibroblast matrix , 2018, Journal of Cell Science.

[65]  J. Sicklick,et al.  GPR68, a proton‐sensing GPCR, mediates interaction of cancer‐associated fibroblasts and cancer cells , 2017, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[66]  P. Foster,et al.  Estrogen Activation by Steroid Sulfatase Increases Colorectal Cancer Proliferation via GPER , 2017, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[67]  R. Poulsom,et al.  GPER mediates differential effects of estrogen on colon cancer cell proliferation and migration under normoxic and hypoxic conditions , 2017, Oncotarget.

[68]  Ran Tao,et al.  The expression of ETAR in liver cirrhosis and liver cancer , 2017, Cancer biology & therapy.

[69]  M. Nishida,et al.  Stimulation of Adenosine A2B Receptor Inhibits Endothelin-1-Induced Cardiac Fibroblast Proliferation and α-Smooth Muscle Actin Synthesis Through the cAMP/Epac/PI3K/Akt-Signaling Pathway , 2017, Front. Pharmacol..

[70]  Q. Qi,et al.  Hepatic expression of cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 correlate with fibrogenesis in patients with chronic hepatitis B. , 2017, International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

[71]  M. Madan Babu,et al.  Selectivity determinants of GPCR–G-protein binding , 2017, Nature.

[72]  P. White,et al.  Targeting Adenosine Receptors for the Treatment of Cardiac Fibrosis , 2017, Front. Pharmacol..

[73]  J. Molkentin,et al.  Redefining the identity of cardiac fibroblasts , 2017, Nature Reviews Cardiology.

[74]  D. Deshpande,et al.  Bitter Taste Receptor Agonists Mitigate Features of Allergic Asthma in Mice , 2017, Scientific Reports.

[75]  R. Akhurst Targeting TGF-β Signaling for Therapeutic Gain. , 2017, Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology.

[76]  Xianghong Zhang,et al.  Dibutyryl-cAMP attenuates pulmonary fibrosis by blocking myofibroblast differentiation via PKA/CREB/CBP signaling in rats with silicosis , 2017, Respiratory Research.

[77]  G. Chen,et al.  GPER/ERK&AKT/NF-κB pathway is involved in cadmium-induced proliferation, invasion and migration of GPER-positive thyroid cancer cells , 2017, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[78]  Qi Zhang,et al.  G protein-coupled estrogen receptor deficiency accelerates liver tumorigenesis by enhancing inflammation and fibrosis. , 2016, Cancer letters.

[79]  A. Nawaz,et al.  M2 macrophages in metabolism , 2016, Diabetology International.

[80]  M. Wojtukiewicz,et al.  Protease-activated receptors - biology and role in cancer. , 2016, Postepy higieny i medycyny doswiadczalnej.

[81]  Y. Chang,et al.  Co-inhibition of Angiotensin II Receptor and Endothelin-1 Attenuates Renal Injury in Unilateral Ureteral Obstructed Mice , 2016, Kidney and Blood Pressure Research.

[82]  A. Belfiore,et al.  Stimulatory actions of IGF-I are mediated by IGF-IR cross-talk with GPER and DDR1 in mesothelioma and lung cancer cells , 2016, Oncotarget.

[83]  H. Plotkin,et al.  Dual inhibition of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and endothelin-1 in treatment of chronic kidney disease , 2016, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[84]  K. Yutzey,et al.  Cardiac Fibrosis: The Fibroblast Awakens. , 2016, Circulation research.

[85]  Xiaobing Fu,et al.  Epithelial-mesenchymal transition: An emerging target in tissue fibrosis , 2016, Experimental biology and medicine.

[86]  Guojian Yin,et al.  Retinoic Acid Ameliorates Pancreatic Fibrosis and Inhibits the Activation of Pancreatic Stellate Cells in Mice with Experimental Chronic Pancreatitis via Suppressing the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway , 2015, PloS one.

[87]  A. D. de González,et al.  The Pill's gestation: from birth control to cancer prevention. , 2015, The Lancet. Oncology.

[88]  Eun-Hee Cho,et al.  Succinate causes α-SMA production through GPR91 activation in hepatic stellate cells. , 2015, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[89]  M. Vinciguerra,et al.  Acetylcholine induces fibrogenic effects via M2/M3 acetylcholine receptors in non‐alcoholic steatohepatitis and in primary human hepatic stellate cells , 2015, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[90]  J. Manson,et al.  Oral contraceptives and menopausal hormone therapy: relative and attributable risks of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other health outcomes. , 2015, Annals of epidemiology.

[91]  J. Mehta,et al.  Endothelin-1 upregulation mediates aging-related cardiac fibrosis. , 2015, Journal of molecular and cellular cardiology.

[92]  M. Entman,et al.  Tumor necrosis factor: a mechanistic link between angiotensin-II-induced cardiac inflammation and fibrosis. , 2015, Circulation. Heart failure.

[93]  Mark D. Huffman,et al.  Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2015 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association , 2009, Circulation.

[94]  J. Berzofsky,et al.  Cutaneous keratoacanthomas/squamous cell carcinomas associated with neutralization of transforming growth factor β by the monoclonal antibody fresolimumab (GC1008) , 2015, Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy.

[95]  Mary E. Choi,et al.  Autophagy regulates TGF-β expression and suppresses kidney fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction. , 2014, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[96]  F. Rodríguez-Pascual,et al.  The profibrotic role of endothelin-1: is the door still open for the treatment of fibrotic diseases? , 2014, Life sciences.

[97]  J. Nattermann,et al.  Angiotensin‐II type 1 receptor‐mediated Janus kinase 2 activation induces liver fibrosis , 2014, Hepatology.

[98]  Guojian Yin,et al.  Imbalance of Wnt/Dkk Negative Feedback Promotes Persistent Activation of Pancreatic Stellate Cells in Chronic Pancreatitis , 2014, PloS one.

[99]  J. Berzofsky,et al.  Phase I Study of GC1008 (Fresolimumab): A Human Anti-Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGFβ) Monoclonal Antibody in Patients with Advanced Malignant Melanoma or Renal Cell Carcinoma , 2014, PloS one.

[100]  B. Moore,et al.  Paracrine functions of fibrocytes to promote lung fibrosis , 2014, Expert review of respiratory medicine.

[101]  A. Mallat,et al.  Cannabinoid signaling and liver therapeutics. , 2013, Journal of hepatology.

[102]  P. Bainbridge,et al.  Wound healing and the role of fibroblasts. , 2013, Journal of wound care.

[103]  K. Ridge,et al.  The role of vimentin intermediate filaments in the progression of lung cancer. , 2013, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[104]  W. Jeong,et al.  Interaction of hepatic stellate cells with diverse types of immune cells: Foe or friend? , 2013, Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology.

[105]  N. Saxena,et al.  Effects of modulating M3 muscarinic receptor activity on azoxymethane-induced liver injury in mice. , 2013, Biochemical pharmacology.

[106]  G. Karaca,et al.  Smoothened is a master regulator of adult liver repair. , 2013, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[107]  R. Bank,et al.  Cell plasticity in wound healing: paracrine factors of M1/ M2 polarized macrophages influence the phenotypical state of dermal fibroblasts , 2013, Cell Communication and Signaling.

[108]  H. Lee,et al.  5‐HT2A receptor antagonists inhibit hepatic stellate cell activation and facilitate apoptosis , 2013, Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver.

[109]  Jiyuan Zhang,et al.  Complement 5a stimulates hepatic stellate cells in vitro, and is increased in the plasma of patients with chronic hepatitis B , 2013, Immunology.

[110]  J. González-Navajas,et al.  Beta-Adrenergic Receptor 1 Selective Antagonism Inhibits Norepinephrine-Mediated TNF-Alpha Downregulation in Experimental Liver Cirrhosis , 2012, PloS one.

[111]  R. Akhurst,et al.  Complexities of TGF-β Targeted Cancer Therapy , 2012, International journal of biological sciences.

[112]  C. Artlett The Role of the NLRP3 Inflammasome in Fibrosis , 2012, The open rheumatology journal.

[113]  Mary E. Choi,et al.  TGF-β signaling via TAK1 pathway: role in kidney fibrosis. , 2012, Seminars in nephrology.

[114]  B. Trzaskowski,et al.  Action of Molecular Switches in GPCRs - Theoretical and Experimental Studies , 2012, Current medicinal chemistry.

[115]  S. Cai,et al.  Lymphatic endothelial cell‐secreted CXCL1 stimulates lymphangiogenesis and metastasis of gastric cancer , 2012, International journal of cancer.

[116]  M. Anderton,et al.  Induction of Heart Valve Lesions by Small-Molecule ALK5 Inhibitors , 2011, Toxicologic pathology.

[117]  Valerie M. Weaver,et al.  The extracellular matrix at a glance , 2010, Journal of Cell Science.

[118]  A. Agarwal,et al.  Identification of a metalloprotease-chemokine signaling system in the ovarian cancer microenvironment: implications for antiangiogenic therapy. , 2010, Cancer research.

[119]  M. Landström The TAK1-TRAF6 signalling pathway. , 2010, The international journal of biochemistry & cell biology.

[120]  Yong-En Xie,et al.  Effect of S1P5 on proliferation and migration of human esophageal cancer cells. , 2010, World journal of gastroenterology.

[121]  J. Lee,et al.  Snail Promotes CXCR2 LigandDependent Tumor Progression in NonSmall Cell Lung Carcinoma , 2009, Clinical Cancer Research.

[122]  A. Masamune,et al.  Roles of pancreatic stellate cells in pancreatic inflammation and fibrosis. , 2009, Clinical gastroenterology and hepatology : the official clinical practice journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

[123]  M. Raimondo,et al.  CXC‐chemokine/CXCR2 biological axis promotes angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo in pancreatic cancer , 2009, International journal of cancer.

[124]  F. Tacke,et al.  Antifibrotic effects of CXCL9 and its receptor CXCR3 in livers of mice and humans. , 2009, Gastroenterology.

[125]  A. Masamune,et al.  Signal transduction in pancreatic stellate cells , 2009, Journal of Gastroenterology.

[126]  J. Raufman,et al.  Muscarinic receptors and ligands in cancer. , 2009, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology.

[127]  K. Shimizu Mechanisms of pancreatic fibrosis and applications to the treatment of chronic pancreatitis , 2008, Journal of Gastroenterology.

[128]  Steven K. Huang,et al.  Prostaglandin E2 inhibits specific lung fibroblast functions via selective actions of PKA and Epac-1. , 2008, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[129]  R. Schwartz,et al.  Signaling via the Tgf-beta type I receptor Alk5 in heart development. , 2008, Developmental biology.

[130]  R. Glaser,et al.  Norepinephrine upregulates VEGF, IL-8, and IL-6 expression in human melanoma tumor cell lines: Implications for stress-related enhancement of tumor progression , 2008, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity.

[131]  T. Borg,et al.  Neonatal and Adult Cardiovascular Pathophysiological Remodeling and Repair , 2008, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[132]  R. Mirabile,et al.  Inhibition of ALK5 Signaling Induces Physeal Dysplasia in Rats , 2007, Toxicologic pathology.

[133]  Vicente Arroyo,et al.  Norepinephrine induces calcium spikes and proinflammatory actions in human hepatic stellate cells. , 2006, American journal of physiology. Gastrointestinal and liver physiology.

[134]  Liz Y. Han,et al.  Chronic stress promotes tumor growth and angiogenesis in a mouse model of ovarian carcinoma , 2006, Nature Medicine.

[135]  K. Sugano,et al.  Autocrine loop between TGF-β1 and IL-1β through Smad3- and ERK-dependent pathways in rat pancreatic stellate cells , 2006 .

[136]  R. Ostrom,et al.  Fibrotic Lung Fibroblasts Show Blunted Inhibition by cAMP Due to Deficient cAMP Response Element-Binding Protein Phosphorylation , 2005, Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.

[137]  M. Clozel,et al.  Role of endothelin in fibrosis and anti‐fibrotic potential of bosentan , 2005, Annals of medicine.

[138]  A. Cheng,et al.  Effect of prostaglandin E2 and prostaglandin I2 on PDGF-induced proliferation of LI90, a human hepatic stellate cell line. , 2004, Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids.

[139]  Hirotoshi Nakamura,et al.  Prostaglandin E2 Inhibits Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-Stimulated Cell Proliferation Through a Prostaglandin E Receptor EP2 Subtype in Rat Hepatic Stellate Cells , 2004, Digestive Diseases and Sciences.

[140]  F. Balkwill Cancer and the chemokine network , 2004, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[141]  S. Kudoh,et al.  Mechanical stress activates angiotensin II type 1 receptor without the involvement of angiotensin II , 2004, Nature Cell Biology.

[142]  J. Schlesselman,et al.  Safety concerns and health benefits associated with oral contraception. , 2004, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[143]  A. Kolada,et al.  The regulatory role of prostaglandin E2 in liver (patho) physiology is controlled at its site of synthesis and its action on the receptors , 2004, Comparative hepatology.

[144]  R. Dahiya,et al.  Estrogen receptor alpha polymorphisms and renal cell carcinoma—a possible risk , 2003, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[145]  T. Joh,et al.  Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor attenuates pancreatic inflammation and fibrosis in male Wistar Bonn/Kobori rats. , 2003, Gastroenterology.

[146]  S. Kawashima,et al.  Endothelin-1 activates p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase via endothelin-A receptor in rat myocardial cells , 1999, Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry.

[147]  S. Narumiya,et al.  Signaling from Rho to the actin cytoskeleton through protein kinases ROCK and LIM-kinase. , 1999, Science.

[148]  R. Bataller,et al.  Arginine vasopressin induces contraction and stimulates growth of cultured human hepatic stellate cells. , 1997, Gastroenterology.

[149]  E. Amento,et al.  Relaxin induces an extracellular matrix-degrading phenotype in human lung fibroblasts in vitro and inhibits lung fibrosis in a murine model in vivo. , 1996, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[150]  M. Sporn,et al.  Transforming growth factor beta 1 null mutation in mice causes excessive inflammatory response and early death. , 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[151]  G. Proetzel,et al.  Targeted disruption of the mouse transforming growth factor-β1 gene results in multifocal inflammatory disease , 1992, Nature.

[152]  D. Middlemiss,et al.  The 5‐HT1B Receptors , 1990, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[153]  Jun Yu,et al.  CXC chemokine receptor 3 promotes steatohepatitis in mice through mediating inflammatory cytokines, macrophages and autophagy. , 2016, Journal of hepatology.

[154]  S. Rosselot Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. , 2014, Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987).

[155]  P. Galie,et al.  Interstitial fluid flow and cyclic strain differentially regulate cardiac fibroblast activation via AT1R and TGF-β1. , 2012, Experimental cell research.

[156]  S. Mueller,et al.  Cannabinoid Receptor Type I Modulates Alcohol-Induced Liver Fibrosis , 2011, Molecular medicine.

[157]  Y. Takada,et al.  Hemostasis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology: Inhibition of tissue factor signaling suppresses tumor growth , 2014 .