Digital Three-Dimensional Photogrammetry: Evaluation of Anthropometric Precision and Accuracy Using a Genex 3D Camera System

Objective To determine the precision and accuracy of facial anthropometric measurements obtained through digital three-dimensional (3D) photogrammetry. Design Nineteen standard craniofacial measurements were repeatedly obtained on 20 subjects by two independent observers, using calipers and 3D photos (obtained with a Genex 3D camera system), both with and without facial landmarks labeled. Four different precision estimates were then calculated and compared statistically across techniques. In addition, mean measurements from 3D photos were compared statistically with those from direct anthropometry. Results In terms of measurement precision, the 3D photos were clearly better than direct anthropometry. In almost all cases, the 3D photo with landmarks labeled had the highest overall precision. In addition, labeling landmarks prior to taking measurements improved precision, regardless of method. Good congruence was observed between means derived from the 3D photos and direct anthropometry. Statistically significant differences were noted for seven measurements; however, the magnitude of these differences was often clinically insignificant (< 2 mm). Conclusions Digital 3D photogrammetry with the Genex camera system is sufficiently precise and accurate for the anthropometric needs of most medical and craniofacial research designs.

[1]  P. Burke,et al.  Stereophotographic measurement of change in facial soft tissue morphology following surgery. , 1983, The British journal of oral surgery.

[2]  P K Commean,et al.  Quantification of Facial Surface Change Using a Structured Light Scanner , 1994, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[3]  L. Farkas,et al.  Accuracy of Anthropometric Measurements: Past, Present, and Future , 1996 .

[4]  S Arridge,et al.  Three dimensional digitization of the face and skull. , 1985, Journal of maxillofacial surgery.

[5]  R. Evans,et al.  Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Child Cleft Face , 2000 .

[6]  N. Cameron,et al.  The Methods of Auxological Anthropometry , 1978 .

[7]  S. Ong,et al.  Surface laser scanning of the cleft palate deformity--validation of the method. , 1999, Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore.

[8]  Michael Chiaramonte,et al.  Clinical Applications of Three‐Dimensional Photography in Breast Surgery , 2002, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[9]  G M West,et al.  Reliability and repeatability of 3-D body scanner (LASS) measurements compared to anthropometry. , 1994, Annals of human biology.

[10]  S R Arridge,et al.  Three-dimensional visualization of the face and skull using computerized tomography and laser scanning techniques. , 1987, European Journal of Orthodontics.

[11]  J M TANNER,et al.  The reliability of the photogrammetric method of anthropometry, with a description of a miniature camera technique. , 1949, American journal of physical anthropology.

[12]  V F Ferrario,et al.  Facial three-dimensional morphometry. , 1996, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[13]  J. Himes,et al.  Reliability of anthropometric methods and replicate measurements. , 1989, American journal of physical anthropology.

[14]  E. Sunderland,et al.  Anthropometry: the Individual and the Population , 1995 .

[15]  Bruce Bradtmiller,et al.  Interobserver error in a large scale anthropometric survey , 1992, American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council.

[16]  T. Kobayashi,et al.  Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology before and after orthognathic surgery. , 1990, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[17]  Y. Kawano.  Three dimensional analysis of the face in respect of zygomatic fractures and evaluation of the surgery with the aid of Moiré topography. , 1987, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[18]  T. Kawai,et al.  Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology using moiré stripes. Part II. Analysis of normal adults. , 1990, International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery.

[19]  K. Bush,et al.  Three-dimensional facial anthropometry using a laser surface scanner: validation of the technique. , 1996, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[20]  R. Evans,et al.  Three-dimensional analysis of the child cleft face. , 2000, The Cleft palate-craniofacial journal : official publication of the American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association.

[21]  C B Cutting,et al.  Three-dimensional Input of Body Surface Data Using a Laser Light Scanner , 1988, Annals of plastic surgery.

[22]  S. C. Aung,et al.  Evaluation of the laser scanner as a surface measuring tool and its accuracy compared with direct facial anthropometric measurements. , 1995, British journal of plastic surgery.

[23]  N Natsume,et al.  Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology using moiré stripes. Part I. Method. , 1990, International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery.

[24]  Claire C. Gordon,et al.  Anthropometric Survey of U.S. Army Personnel: Pilot Summary Statistics, 1988 , 1991 .

[25]  S. Zegura,et al.  Multiple observers, humidity, and choice of precision statistics: factors influencing craniometric data quality. , 1983, American journal of physical anthropology.

[26]  C. Cacou.  Anthropometry of the head and face , 1995 .

[27]  J. van den Broeck,et al.  Influence of knowledge, training and experience of observers on the reliability of anthropometric measurements in children , 2003, Annals of human biology.

[28]  J. Lourie,et al.  Anthropometry: Intra- and inter-observer error in anthropometric measurement , 1994 .

[29]  T. Coward,et al.  Laser scanning for the identification of repeatable landmarks of the ears and face. , 1997, British journal of plastic surgery.

[30]  M Motoyoshi,et al.  A three-dimensional measuring system for the human face using three-directional photography. , 1992, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[31]  Jean-Pierre Habicht,et al.  Anthropometric Field Methods: Criteria for Selection , 1979 .

[32]  F C van Ginkel,et al.  Quantification of facial morphology using stereophotogrammetry--demonstration of a new concept. , 1996, Journal of dentistry.

[33]  Ward Re,et al.  Measurement precision and reliability in craniofacial anthropometry: implications and suggestions for clinical applications. , 1991 .

[34]  A. R. Frisancho.  Anthropometric Standards for the Assessment of Growth and Nutritional Status , 1990 .

[35]  J. Fleiss.  The design and analysis of clinical experiments , 1987 .

[36]  A D Linney,et al.  A three-dimensional soft tissue analysis of 16 skeletal class III patients following bimaxillary surgery. , 1992, The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery.

[37]  F. Bookstein,et al.  The inappropriateness of conventional cephalometrics. , 1979, American journal of orthodontics.

[38]  A. Peterson,et al.  Technical note: Different techniques, different results--a comparison of photogrammetric and caliper-derived measurements. , 1998, American journal of physical anthropology.

[39]  Preliminary evaluation of an electromagnetic three-dimensional digitizer in facial anthropometry. , 1998, The Cleft palate-craniofacial journal : official publication of the American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association.

[40]  F. H. Beard,et al.  Stereophotogrammetry of the face. A preliminary investigation into the accuracy of a simplified system evolved for contour mapping by photography. , 1967, American journal of orthodontics.

[41]  Charles A. Mosse,et al.  A laser scanning system for the measurement of facial surface morphology , 1989 .

[42]  M W Vannier,et al.  Anthropometric Optical Surface Imaging System Repeatability, Precision, and Validation , 1995, Annals of plastic surgery.

[43]  M W Vannier,et al.  Quantitative Three-Dimensional Assessment of Face-Lift with an Optical Facial Surface Scanner , 1993, Annals of plastic surgery.

[44]  R. Bailey,et al.  A NEW, OLD METHOD FOR ASSESSING MEASUREMENT ERROR IN BOTH UNIVARIATE AND MULTIVARIATE MORPHOMETRIC STUDIES , 1990 .

[45]  S. Zegura,et al.  A univariate and multivariate examination of measurement error in anthropometry. , 1974, American journal of physical anthropology.

[46]  V F Ferrario,et al.  A computerized non-invasive method for the assessment of human facial volume. , 1995, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[47]  L. Farkas,et al.  Is photogrammetry of the face reliable? , 1980, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[48]  Zheng Geng,et al.  Rainbow three‐dimensional camera: new concept of high‐speed three‐dimensional vision systems , 1996 .

[49]  A. Jacobson.  A comparison of anthropometric and computer-assisted acquisition of facial surface topography , 1998 .

[50]  Thomas K. Pilgram,et al.  Facial surface scanner , 1991, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[51]  C L Vaughan,et al.  A stereo-photogrammetric method to measure the facial dysmorphology of children in the diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome. , 2002, Medical engineering & physics.

[52]  S. Zegura,et al.  Intra- and interobserver error in craniometry: a cautionary tale. , 1982, American journal of physical anthropology.

[53]  K F Moos,et al.  A vision-based three-dimensional capture system for maxillofacial assessment and surgical planning. , 1998, British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.

[54]  C. Sforza,et al.  A three-dimensional study of sexual dimorphism in the human face. , 1994, The International journal of adult orthodontics and orthognathic surgery.

[55]  R. A. Jacobs.  Three-dimensional photography. , 2001, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[56]  D. Kerr,et al.  Anthropometric measurement error and the assessment of nutritional status , 1999, British Journal of Nutrition.

[57]  O M Antonyshyn,et al.  Facial asymmetry: three-dimensional analysis using laser surface scanning. , 1999, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[58]  M W Vannier,et al.  Three-dimensional measurement accuracy of skull surface landmarks. , 1988, American journal of physical anthropology.

[59]  W. Mueller,et al.  Reliability, dependability, and precision of anthropometric measurements. The Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1976-1980. , 1989, American journal of epidemiology.

[60]  R E Ward,et al.  Brief communication: measurement size, precision, and reliability in craniofacial anthropometry: bigger is better. , 1993, American journal of physical anthropology.

[61]  L Hatle,et al.  Reliability and accuracy of measurement of transductal gradient by Doppler ultrasound. , 1993, International journal of cardiology.

[62]  S. Washburn,et al.  Photography: an anthropometric tool. , 1952, American journal of physical anthropology.