Particle acceleration and kinematics in solar flares – A Synthesis of Recent Observations and Theoretical Concepts (Invited Review)

We review the physical processes of particle acceleration, injection, propagation, trapping, and energy loss in solar flare conditions. An understanding of these basic physical processes is inexorable to interpret the detailed timing and spectral evolution of the radiative signatures caused by nonthermal particles in hard X-rays, gamma-rays, and radio wavelengths. In contrast to other more theoretically oriented reviews on particle acceleration processes, we aim here to capitalize on the numerous observations from recent spacecraft missions, such as from the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), the Yohkoh Hard X-Ray Telescope (HXT) and Soft X-Ray Telescope (SXT), and the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE). High-precision energy-dependent time delay measurements from CGRO and spatial imaging with Yohkoh and TRACE provide invaluable observational constraints on the topology of the acceleration region, the reconstruction of magnetic reconnection processes, the resulting electromagnetic fields, and the kinematics of energized (nonthermal) particles.

[1]  P. Robinson,et al.  Bidirectional Type III Solar Radio Bursts , 2000 .

[2]  D. Melrose,et al.  Electron‐cyclotron maser emission: Relative growth and damping rates for different modes and harmonics , 1984 .

[3]  E. Fenimore,et al.  Stereoscopic observations of a solar flare hard X-ray source in the high corona , 1992 .

[4]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  The coevolution of decimetric millisecond spikes and hard X-ray emission during solar flares , 1992 .

[5]  J. Sakai,et al.  Particle acceleration by magnetic reconnection and shocks during current loop coalescence in solar flares , 1988 .

[6]  R. Lin Observations of the 3D distributions of thermal to near-relativistic electrons in the interplanetary medium by the wind spacecraft , 1997 .

[7]  D. Spicer The thermal and non-thermal flare , 1977 .

[8]  Hugh S. Hudson,et al.  High-Energy Particles in Solar Flares , 1995 .

[9]  M. A. Weber,et al.  Highly Energetic Physical Processes and Mechanisms for Emission from Astrophysical Plasmas: IAU Symposium 195 , 2000 .

[10]  Haimin Wang,et al.  High-Cadence Observations of an Impulsive Flare , 2000 .

[11]  A. Gordon Emslie,et al.  Coulomb Energy Losses in the Solar Corona and the Proton Energy Budget in Flares , 1997 .

[12]  R. Stewart Relationship between type III-V radio and hard X-ray bursts , 1978 .

[13]  Markus J. Aschwanden,et al.  Electron Densities in Solar Flare Loops, Chromospheric Evaporation Upflows, and Acceleration Sites , 1997 .

[14]  Leon Golub,et al.  The Topology and Evolution of the Bastille Day Flare , 2000 .

[15]  Eric Ronald Priest,et al.  Magnetic Reconnection: MHD Theory and Applications , 2000 .

[16]  A. Benz,et al.  A mechanism for producing plasma radiation in the gigahertz range by precipitating high-energy protons , 1991 .

[17]  D. Rust,et al.  Evidence for Helically Kinked Magnetic Flux Ropes in Solar Eruptions , 1996 .

[18]  B. Dennis,et al.  Solar flares: The impulsive phase , 1989 .

[19]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  The Timing of Electron Beam Signatures in Hard X-Ray and Radio: Solar Flare Observations by BATSE/Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory and PHOENIX , 1993 .

[20]  C. Jager,et al.  Properties of elementary flare bursts , 1978 .

[21]  G. Dulk Interplanetary particle beams , 1990 .

[22]  P. A. Sweet,et al.  The production of high energy particles in solar flares , 1958 .

[23]  R. Lin The relationship between energetic electrons interacting at the sun and escaping to the interplanetary medium , 1993 .

[24]  T. N. Larosa,et al.  A Mechanism for Bulk Energization in the Impulsive Phase of Solar Flares: MHD Turbulent Cascade , 1993 .

[25]  Eric Ronald Priest,et al.  An emerging flux model for the solar flare phenomenon , 1977 .

[26]  L. Block A double layer review , 1978 .

[27]  D. Burgess,et al.  Electron acceleration at nearly perpendicular collisionless shocks: 2. Reflection at curved shocks , 1991 .

[28]  Y. Hanaoka Flares and plasma flow caused by interacting coronal loops , 1996 .

[29]  H. Hudson,et al.  Sigmoidal morphology and eruptive solar activity , 1999 .

[30]  R. Winglee Effects of a finite plasma temperature on electron-cyclotron maser emission , 1985 .

[31]  S. Antiochos,et al.  Coronal current-sheet formation - The effect of asymmetric and symmetric shears , 1991 .

[32]  A. Benz,et al.  Stochastic acceleration of electrons in solar flares , 1987 .

[33]  Enrico Fermi,et al.  Galactic Magnetic Fields and the Origin of Cosmic Radiation. , 1954 .

[34]  John Ambrosiano,et al.  Test particle acceleration in turbulent reconnecting magnetic fields , 1988 .

[35]  M. Goldman,et al.  The speeds of electrons that excite solar radio bursts of type III , 1987 .

[36]  Kevin P. Reardon,et al.  The Eruptive Flare of 15 November 1991: Preflare Phenomena , 1998 .

[37]  T. Kosugi,et al.  Collisionless Reconnection and High-Energy Particle Acceleration in Solar Flares , 1997 .

[38]  R. Sunyaev,et al.  Hard X-ray and gamma-ray observations of an electron dominated event associated with an occulted solar flare , 1999 .

[39]  H. Zirin,et al.  Coordinated OVRO, BATSE, Yohkoh, and BBSO Observations of the 1992 June 25 M1.4 Flare , 1995 .

[40]  Stephen G. Benka,et al.  Critical issues for understanding particle acceleration in impulsive solar flares , 1997 .

[41]  A. MacKinnon,et al.  Beam heating in solar flares - Electrons or protons , 1990 .

[42]  James F. Drake,et al.  Breakup of the electron current layer during 3‐D collisionless magnetic reconnection , 1997 .

[43]  Brian R. Dennis,et al.  Sequences of correlated hard X-ray and type III bursts during solar flares , 1995 .

[44]  John W. Leibacher,et al.  Impulsive phase of flares in soft X-ray emission , 1982 .

[45]  Q. Fu,et al.  The Generating Region of Bidirectional Electron Beams in the Corona , 2000 .

[46]  Alphonse C. Sterling,et al.  Observational Plasma Astrophysics: Five Years of Yohkoh and Beyond , 1998 .

[47]  M. Aschwanden Electron versus Proton Timing Delays in Solar Flares , 1996, astro-ph/9607168.

[48]  T. Kosugi Radio and X-ray observations of a multiple impulsive solar burst with high time resolution , 1981 .

[49]  D. Melrose,et al.  Cyclotron maser emission of auroral Z mode radiation , 1983 .

[50]  A. W. Trivelpiece,et al.  Introduction to Plasma Physics , 1976 .

[51]  M. Hagyard,et al.  The observed characteristics of flare energy release. I - Magnetic structure at the energy release site , 1988 .

[52]  R. Murphy,et al.  Gamma-Ray Measurements of Flare-to-Flare Variations in Ambient Solar Abundances , 1995 .

[53]  D. McKenzie Supra-arcade Downflows in Long-Duration Solar Flare Events , 2000 .

[54]  P. Murdin,et al.  Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics , 2002 .

[55]  M. Uman,et al.  Introduction to Plasma Physics , 1964 .

[56]  J. Grove,et al.  Accelerated Particle Composition and Energetics and Ambient Abundances from Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy of the 1991 June 4 Solar Flare , 1997 .

[57]  C. Goodrich,et al.  Collisionless shock formation and the prompt acceleration of solar flare ions , 1988 .

[58]  George Schmidt,et al.  Physics of High Temperature Plasmas , 1966 .

[59]  I. Craig,et al.  Solution of the electron continuity equation in an inhomogeneous medium via the method of characteristics , 1985, Astrophysics and Space Science.

[60]  C. Menyuk,et al.  Electron cyclotron harmonic wave acceleration , 1987 .

[61]  D. Melrose,et al.  The loss-cone driven instability for Langmuir waves in an unmagnetized plasma , 1985 .

[62]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Electron Time-of-Flight Measurements in Solar Flares , 1995 .

[63]  T. Kosugi,et al.  A loop-top hard X-ray source in a compact solar flare as evidence for magnetic reconnection , 1994, Nature.

[64]  B. Somov,et al.  Relativistic acceleration of protons in reconnecting current sheets of solar flares , 1995 .

[65]  D. Spicer An unstable arch model of a solar flare , 1976 .

[66]  R. Stone,et al.  A U-type solar radio burst originating in the outer corona , 1971 .

[67]  K. Shibata,et al.  Plasmoid-induced-reconnection and fractal reconnection , 2001, astro-ph/0101008.

[68]  J. W. Motz,et al.  Bremsstrahlung Cross-Section Formulas and Related Data , 1959 .

[69]  M. Kundu,et al.  Solar microwave bursts — A review , 1982 .

[70]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  The Electron Injection Function and Energy-dependent Delays in Thick-Target Hard X-Rays , 1998 .

[71]  T. Sakao Characteristics of Solar Flore Hard X-ra Scurces as Reveated with the Hard X-ray Telescope aboard aboard the Yohkoh Satelite , 1994 .

[72]  James A. Miller,et al.  Stochastic Fermi acceleration in solar flares , 1990 .

[73]  G. Simnett,et al.  On the production of hard X-rays in solar flares , 1990 .

[74]  L. Fletcher,et al.  A Model for Hard X-Ray Emission from the Top of Flaring Loops , 1998 .

[75]  A. Benz Books-Received - Plasma Astrophysics - Kinetic Processes in Solar and Stellar Coronae , 2013 .

[76]  J. Raulin,et al.  Metric type III bursts from a flaring X-ray bright point near an active region , 1995 .

[77]  A. Emslie,et al.  Millisecond time variations in hard X-ray solar flares , 1983 .

[78]  P. Sturrock Plasma Physics: References , 1994 .

[79]  John C. Brown,et al.  The directivity and polarisation of thick target X-ray bremsstrahlung from solar flares , 1972 .

[80]  D. Melrose,et al.  The Loss-cone Driven Electron-cyclotron Maser , 1982 .

[81]  Markus J. Aschwanden,et al.  Flare Plasma Cooling from 30 MK down to 1 MK modeled from Yohkoh, GOES, and TRACE observations during the Bastille Day Event (14 July 2000) , 2001 .

[82]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Quasi-periodic particle injection into coronal loops , 1993 .

[83]  A. K. Sinha,et al.  Polymerization of N-vinylcarbazole by gaseous initiators , 1992 .

[84]  E. Zweibel,et al.  The Rise of Kink-unstable Magnetic Flux Tubes and the Origin of δ-Configuration Sunspots , 1999 .

[85]  Eugene N. Parker,et al.  Sweet's mechanism for merging magnetic fields in conducting fluids , 1957 .

[86]  L. Golub,et al.  A new view of the solar corona from the transition region and coronal explorer (TRACE) , 1999 .

[87]  Ester Antonucci,et al.  The energetics of chromospheric evaporation in solar flares , 1984 .

[88]  R. Lin,et al.  The derivation of parent electron spectra from bremsstrahlung hard X-ray spectra , 1992 .

[89]  K. Kai,et al.  Microwave and X-ray observations of delayed brightenings at sites remote from the primary flare locations , 1985 .

[90]  Saku Tsuneta,et al.  Fermi Acceleration at the Fast Shock in a Solar Flare and the Impulsive Loop-Top Hard X-Ray Source , 1998, astro-ph/9801109.

[91]  Takeo Kosugi,et al.  Electron Time-of-Flight Measurements during the Masuda Flare, 1992 January 13 , 1996 .

[92]  H. Hudson,et al.  A Hard X-ray Two-Ribbon Flare Observed with Yohkoh/HXT , 2001 .

[93]  J. R. Jokipii A model of Fermi acceleration at shock fronts with an application to the earth's bow shock. , 1966 .

[94]  H. Hudson Thick-target processes and white-light flares , 1972 .

[95]  B. Kliem Particle Orbits, Trapping, and Acceleration in a Filamentary Current Sheet Model , 1994 .

[96]  Joseph P. Dougherty,et al.  Waves in plasmas. , 1993 .

[97]  D. Spicer First phase heating and particle acceleration during solar flares by fast tearing modes , 1981 .

[98]  Haimin Wang,et al.  Extreme-Ultraviolet Jets and Hα Surges in Solar Microflares , 1999 .

[99]  L. Vlahos,et al.  Comparative study of the loss cone-driven instabilities in the low solar corona , 1984 .

[100]  L. Spitzer Physics of fully ionized gases , 1956 .

[101]  H. Kurokawa Two distinct morphological types of magnetic shear development and their relation to flares , 1982 .

[102]  L. Fletcher,et al.  High-resolution Observations of Plasma Jets in the Solar Corona , 1999 .

[103]  S. Antiochos,et al.  A Model for Solar Coronal Mass Ejections , 1998, astro-ph/9807220.

[104]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  METRIC SPIKES AND ELECTRON ACCELERATION IN THE SOLAR CORONA , 1996 .

[105]  Harold P. Furth,et al.  Finite‐Resistivity Instabilities of a Sheet Pinch , 1963 .

[106]  P. Robinson Kinematic and temperature restrictions on the electron cyclotron maser instability , 1986 .

[107]  D. Melrose Resonant scattering of particles and second phase acceleration in the solar corona , 1974 .

[108]  H. Hudson,et al.  Impulsive behavior in solar soft X-radiation , 1994 .

[109]  James A. Miller,et al.  Stochastic gyroresonant electron acceleration in a low-beta plasma. I: Interaction with parallel transverse cold plasma waves , 1992 .

[110]  D. Gary,et al.  Solar Microwave Bursts and Injection Pitch-Angle Distribution of Flare Electrons , 2000 .

[111]  K. Hurley,et al.  Directivity of 100-500 keV solar flare hard X-ray emission , 1994 .

[112]  John C. Brown,et al.  The deduction of energy spectra of non-thermal electrons in flares from the observed dynamic spectra of hard X-ray bursts , 1971 .

[113]  L. Vlahos,et al.  Numerical Studies of Particle Acceleration at Turbulent, Oblique Shocks with an Application to Prompt Ion Acceleration during Solar Flares , 1986 .

[114]  K. Papadopoulos,et al.  Formation of fast electron tails in Type II solar bursts. Memorandum report , 1976 .

[115]  B. Filippov Observation of a 3d Magnetic Null Point in the Solar Corona , 1999 .

[116]  A. Benz,et al.  Statistical analysis of high-frequency decimetric type III bursts , 1999 .

[117]  C. S. Wu,et al.  Kinetic cyclotron and synchrotron maser instabilities: Radio emission processes by direct amplification of radiation , 1985 .

[118]  Y. Uchida,et al.  A Quadruple Magnetic Source Model for Arcade Flares and X-Ray Arcade Formations outside Active Regions. II. Dark Filament Eruption and the Associated Arcade Flare , 2001 .

[119]  J. Brown,et al.  Collective plasma effects and the electron number problem in solar hard X-ray bursts , 1977 .

[120]  James A. Miller,et al.  Stochastic Electron Acceleration by Cascading Fast Mode Waves in Impulsive Solar Flares , 1996 .

[121]  S. Tsuneta,et al.  Heating and acceleration processes in hot thermal and impulsive solar flares , 1985 .

[122]  H. Hudson,et al.  First-order Fermi acceleration in solar flares as a mechanism for the second-step acceleration of prompt protons and relativistic electrons , 1983 .

[123]  D. Mihalas,et al.  Physics of the sun , 1985 .

[124]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Correlation of solar decimetric radio bursts with X-ray flares , 1985 .

[125]  T. H. Stix Waves in plasmas , 1992 .

[126]  K. Gayley,et al.  Inferring chromospheric flare heating from hydrogen-line wings , 1991 .

[127]  D. A. Dunnett Classical Electrodynamics , 2020, Nature.

[128]  P. Sturrock Model of the High-Energy Phase of Solar Flares , 1966, Nature.

[129]  D. D. Barbosa Stochastic Acceleration of Solar Flare Protons. , 1979 .

[130]  J. Schumacher,et al.  Three-dimensional spontaneous magnetic reconnection in neutral current sheets , 1999, astro-ph/9912443.

[131]  A. Raoult,et al.  Correlated observations of a spatially resolved type III solar radio burst group and the associated hard X-ray emission , 1980 .

[132]  E. Priest,et al.  A CONVERGING FLUX MODEL OF AN X-RAY BRIGHT POINT AND AN ASSOCIATED CANCELING MAGNETIC FEATURE , 1994 .

[133]  J. Karpen The role of betatron acceleration in complex solar bursts , 1982 .

[134]  Andrew D. Warshall,et al.  Ultraviolet Flare Ribbon Brightenings and the Onset of Hard X-Ray Emission , 2001 .

[135]  P. Venkatakrishnan,et al.  Nonpotential magnetic fields at sites of gamma-ray flares , 1990 .

[136]  Chueh-Yu Wu,et al.  Coalescence of magnetic islands , 1979 .

[137]  R. Murphy,et al.  Gamma-ray spectroscopic tests for the anisotropy of accelerated particles in solar flares , 1988 .

[138]  K. Papadopoulos,et al.  The importance of plasma effects on electron-cyclotron maser-emission from flaring loops , 1982 .

[139]  T. Cline,et al.  On the generation of synchrotron and X-ray emission from electrons with energy below mc super 2 in solar flares. , 1968 .

[140]  A. Benz,et al.  On the Electron-Cyclotron Maser Instability. II. Pulsations in the Quasi-stationary State , 1988 .

[141]  Jun Zhang,et al.  Magnetic Flux Cancellation Associated with the Major Solar Event on 2000 July 14 , 2001 .

[142]  Brian R. Dennis,et al.  Solar hard X-ray bursts , 1985 .

[143]  K. Sheridan,et al.  An Investigation of the Speed of the Solar Disturbances responsible for Type III Radio Bursts , 1959 .

[144]  P. Robinson Effects of turbulence on the electron cyclotron-maser mechanism for solar microwave spike bursts , 1991 .

[145]  E. N. Parker,et al.  THE SOLAR FLARE PHENOMENON AND THE THEORY OF RECONNECTION AND ANNIHILATION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS , 1963 .

[146]  On the Fast Fluctuations in Solar Flare Hα Blue Wing Emission , 2001 .

[147]  G. Schmidt,et al.  Physics of High Temperature Plasmas (Second Edition) , 1980 .

[148]  A. Benz,et al.  Millisecond radio spikes , 1986 .

[149]  P. Baum,et al.  Flux linkages of bipolar sunspot groups: A computer study , 1980 .

[150]  R. Klebesadel,et al.  Observation of an impulsive solar X-ray burst from a coronal source , 1979 .

[151]  Edward A. West,et al.  A quantitative study relating observed shear in photospheric magnetic fields to repeated flaring , 1984 .

[152]  Petrus C. H. Martens,et al.  Formation and eruption of solar prominences , 1989 .

[153]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Decimetric Solar Type U Bursts: VLA and PHOENIX Observations , 1992 .

[154]  C. Wu A fast Fermi process: Energetic electrons accelerated by a nearly perpendicular bow shock , 1984 .

[155]  Kevin C. Hurley,et al.  A new component of hard X-rays in solar flares , 1981 .

[156]  Magnetic reconnection in a high-temperature plasma of solar flares , 1989 .

[157]  S. Kane Evidence for a common origin of the electrons responsible for the impulsive X-ray and type III radio bursts , 1972 .

[158]  B. De Pontieu,et al.  Chromospheric Heating in the Late Phase of Two-Ribbon Flares , 2001 .

[159]  P. Robinson Conditions for the validity of unmagnetized-plasma theory in describing weakly magnetized plasmas , 1988 .

[160]  Reuven Ramaty,et al.  Solar abundances from gamma-ray spectroscopy : comparisons with energetic particle, photospheric, and coronal abundances , 1991 .

[161]  B. Klecker,et al.  The Energy Spectra of Solar Flare Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, and Iron: Evidence for Stochastic Acceleration , 1992 .

[162]  J. Brown,et al.  Betatron acceleration in a large solar hard x-ray burst , 1975 .

[163]  B. Vršnak,et al.  Stability of prominences exposing helical-like patterns , 1991 .

[164]  P. Pritchett,et al.  Relativistic dispersion, the cyclotron maser instability, and Auroral kilometric radiation , 1984 .

[165]  G. Holman,et al.  Solar type II radio emission and the shock drift acceleration of electrons , 1983 .

[166]  J. Sakai,et al.  Electromagnetic Wave Emission from a Dynamical Current Sheet with Pinching and the Coalescence of Magnetic Islands in Solar Flare Plasmas , 2001 .

[167]  L. A. Ryder,et al.  Evidence for the Flare Trigger Site and Three-Dimensional Reconnection in Multiwavelength Observations of a Solar Flare , 2001 .

[168]  Hirohisa Hara,et al.  Hard X-Ray Sources and the Primary Energy-Release Site in Solar Flares , 1995 .

[169]  Cristina Hemilse Mandrini,et al.  X-type interactions of the loops in the flare of 25 September 1997 - Part II , 2001 .

[170]  D. Schnack,et al.  Dynamical evolution of twisted magnetic flux tubes. I, Equilibrium and linear stability , 1990 .

[171]  G. Dulk,et al.  Radio Emission from the Sun and Stars , 1985 .

[172]  James A. Miller,et al.  Stochastic Proton Acceleration by Cascading Alfven Waves in Impulsive Solar Flares , 1995 .

[173]  Eric Ronald Priest,et al.  The magnetohydrodynamics of current sheets , 1985 .

[174]  Hugh S. Hudson,et al.  Onset of the Magnetic Explosion in Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections , 2001 .

[175]  B. Dennis Solar flare hard X-ray observations , 1988 .

[176]  L. Driel-Gesztelyi,et al.  MAGNETIC RECONNECTION DRIVEN BY EMERGENCE OF SHEARED MAGNETIC FIELD , 1997 .

[177]  Dieter Biskamp,et al.  Coalescence of Magnetic Islands , 1980 .

[178]  T. Gold,et al.  Magnetically trapped particles in the lower solar atmosphere , 1971 .

[179]  R. Hamilton,et al.  Cyclotron maser and plasma wave growth in magnetic loops , 1990 .

[180]  Takeo Kosugi,et al.  The scaling law between electron time-of-flight distances and loop lengths in solar flares , 1996 .

[181]  Takaaki Yokoyama,et al.  Clear Evidence of Reconnection Inflow of a Solar Flare , 2001 .

[182]  H. Hudson,et al.  The Magnetic Structure and Generation of EUV Flare Ribbons , 2001 .

[183]  M. Kundu High spatial resolution microwave observations of the Sun , 1985 .

[184]  T. Sakurai,et al.  Magnetic Field Configuration in Impulsive Solar Flares Inferred from Coaligned Microwave/X-Ray Images , 1997 .

[185]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  The Inversion of Electron Time-of-Flight Distances from Hard X-Ray Time Delay Measurements , 1996 .

[186]  G. Haerendel Acceleration from field-aligned potential drops , 1994 .

[187]  E. Blackman Distinguishing Solar Flare Types by Differences in Reconnection Regions , 1997, astro-ph/9704239.

[188]  B. Kliem Fragmentary energy release due to tearing and coalescence in coronal current sheets , 1990 .

[189]  W. T. Vestrand,et al.  Evidence for a spatially extended component of gamma rays from solar flares , 1993 .

[190]  D. Melrose,et al.  Radio wave heating of the corona and electron precipitation during flares , 1982 .

[191]  James A. Miller,et al.  Ion and relativistic electron acceleration by Alfven and whistler turbulence in solar flares , 1982 .

[192]  W. Beiglböck,et al.  Lecture Notes in Physics 1969–1985 , 1985 .

[193]  M. Aschwanden Theory of radio pulsations in coronal loops , 1987 .

[194]  S. Antiochos The magnetic topology of solar eruptions , 1998, astro-ph/9806030.

[195]  A. Emslie Thick-target bremsstrahlung interpretation of short time-scale solar hard X-ray features , 1983 .

[196]  R. D. Bentley,et al.  Hard and Soft X-Ray Observations of Solar Limb Flares , 1996 .

[197]  R. Sunyaev,et al.  Evidence for Intense Coronal Prompt Gamma-Ray Line Emission from a Solar Flare , 1994 .

[198]  R. Murphy,et al.  Solar Atmospheric Abundances and Energy Content in Flare-accelerated Ions from Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy , 1995 .

[199]  Bernhard Kliem,et al.  Coalescence of magnetic islands including anomalous resistivity , 1997 .

[200]  T. Kosugi,et al.  Temperature and Density Structure of the 1991 November 2 Flare Observed by the YOHKOH Soft X-Ray Telescope and Hard X-Ray Telescope , 1993 .

[201]  J. Sakai,et al.  High-energy flare explosions driven by 3-dimensional X-type current loop coalescence , 1991 .

[202]  D. Burgess,et al.  "Electron acceleration at nearly perpendicular collisionless shocks, 1, One-dimensional simulations without electron scale fluctuations"" , 1989 .

[203]  S. Tsuneta Particle Acceleration and Magnetic Reconnection in Solar Flares , 1995 .

[204]  J. Sakai,et al.  Rapid dissipation of magnetic field energy driven by plasma flows in force-free collisionless pair plasmas , 2001 .

[205]  L. Driel-Gesztelyi,et al.  Evidence for Current-carrying Emerging Flux , 1996 .

[206]  W. Thomas Vestrand,et al.  The directivity of high-energy emission from solar flares - Solar Maximum Mission observations , 1987 .

[207]  H. Hudson,et al.  HEAO 1 observations of gamma-ray lines from a solar flare , 1980 .

[208]  A. MacKinnon,et al.  The effect of precipitation on diagnostics for electron trap models of solar hard X-ray bursts , 1983 .

[209]  Thomas R. Metcalf,et al.  A Spectral Analysis of the Masuda Flare Using Yohkoh Hard X-Ray Telescope Pixon Reconstruction , 1997 .

[210]  James A. Miller Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence dissipation and stochastic proton acceleration in solar flares , 1991 .

[211]  K. Shibasaki,et al.  Magnetic Trapping and Electron Injection in Two Contrasting Solar Microwave Bursts , 2000 .

[212]  M. Wheatland,et al.  Interpreting Yohkoh hard and soft X-ray flare observations , 1995, Solar Physics.

[213]  Bernhard Haisch,et al.  The Many Faces of the Sun : A Summary of the Results from NASA's Solar Maximum Mission , 1999 .

[214]  A. Benz,et al.  Electron beams in the low corona , 1992 .

[215]  N. Vilmer Hard X-ray emission processes in solar flares , 1987 .

[216]  B. Pontieu,et al.  Evidence for Chromospheric Evaporation in the Late Gradual Flare Phase from SOHO/CDS Observations , 1999 .

[217]  K. Shibasaki,et al.  Solar Physics with Radio Observations : Proceedings of the Nobeyama Symposium Kiyosato, Japan, Oct. 27-30, 1998 , 1999 .

[218]  M. Volwerk,et al.  Strong double layers, existence criteria, and annihilation: an application to solar flares , 1994 .

[219]  R. Kopp,et al.  Magnetic reconnection in the corona and the loop prominence phenomenon , 1976 .

[220]  R. Stewart The Speed and Acceleration of the Sources of Type III And Type V Solar Radio Bursts Over Large Distances in the Corona , 1965 .

[221]  Spiro K. Antiochos,et al.  The Role of Magnetic Reconnection in Chromospheric Eruptions , 1995 .

[222]  Robert M. Winglee,et al.  Characteristics of Hard X-Ray Spectra of Impulsive Solar Flares , 1992 .

[223]  M. Lee,et al.  On the transport and acceleration of solar flare particles in a coronal loop , 1991 .

[224]  Markus J. Aschwanden,et al.  Deconvolution of Directly Precipitating and Trap-Precipitating Electrons in Solar Flare Hard X-Rays. I. Method and Tests , 1998 .

[225]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Deconvolution of Directly Precipitating and Trap-precipitating Electrons in Solar Flare Hard X-Rays. III.Yohkoh Hard X-Ray Telescope Data Analysis , 1999 .

[226]  H. Alvarez,et al.  Solar wind density model from km-wave type III bursts , 1973 .

[227]  J. P. Wild,et al.  Radio Bursts from the Solar Corona , 1972 .

[228]  K. Shibasaki,et al.  Spatial Structure of Simple Spiky Bursts at Microwave/Millimeter Wavelengths , 2001 .

[229]  A. Fokker Trajectories followed by U-like solar radio bursts , 1970 .

[230]  Markus J. Aschwanden,et al.  Electron Time-of-Flight Differences in Solar Flares , 1995 .

[231]  R. P. Lepping,et al.  In situ detection of collisionless reconnection in the Earth's magnetotail , 2001, Nature.

[232]  R. Hamilton,et al.  Stochastic acceleration of electrons. I. Effects of collisions in solar flares , 1992 .

[233]  Eric Ronald Priest,et al.  Magnetic Reconnection: Particle Acceleration , 2000 .

[234]  Reuven Ramaty,et al.  Shock acceleration of electrons and ions in solar flares , 1985 .

[235]  D. Forrest,et al.  Simultaneous acceleration of electrons and ions in solar flares , 1983, Nature.

[236]  P. Robinson Electron-cyclotron maser emission in solar microwave spike bursts , 1991 .

[237]  A. Benz,et al.  Decimetric type III radio bursts and associated hard X-ray spikes , 1984 .

[238]  Electron Trapping Times and Trap Densities in Solar Flare Loops Measured with COMPTON and YOHKOH , 1997 .

[239]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Deconvolution of Directly Precipitating and Trap-Precipitating Electrons in Solar Flare Hard X-Rays. II. Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Data Analysis , 1998 .

[240]  D. Gary,et al.  RADIO EMISSION FROM SOLAR FLARES , 1998 .

[241]  R. Lin Non-relativistic solar electrons , 1974 .

[242]  Eric Ronald Priest,et al.  Kink instability of solar coronal loops as the cause of solar flares , 1979 .

[243]  Andrew D. Warshall,et al.  TRACE and Yohkoh Observations of High-Temperature Plasma in a Two-Ribbon Limb Flare , 1999, The Astrophysical journal.

[244]  Brian R. Dennis,et al.  Solar Electron Beams Detected in Hard X-Rays and Radio Waves , 1995 .

[245]  Brian R. Dennis,et al.  Logistic Avalanche Processes, Elementary Time Structures, and Frequency Distributions in Solar Flares , 1998 .

[246]  E. Lu,et al.  Numerical solution of the time-dependent kinetic equation for electrons in magnetized plasma , 1990 .

[247]  B. Dennis,et al.  Fast variations in high-energy X-rays from solar flares and their constraints on nonthermal models , 1984 .

[248]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Quadrupolar Magnetic Reconnection in Solar Flares. I. Three-dimensional Geometry Inferred from Yohkoh Observations , 1999 .

[249]  Carolus J. Schrijver,et al.  Coronal Loop Oscillations Observed with the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer , 1999 .

[250]  C.-C. Cheng Observation of a kink instability in a solar flare , 1977 .

[251]  Eugene N. Parker,et al.  THE PASSAGE OF ENERGETIC CHARGED PARTICLES THROUGH INTERPLANETARY SPACE , 1965 .

[252]  H. Hudson A purely coronal hard X-ray event , 1978 .

[253]  Saku Tsuneta,et al.  Structure and Dynamics of Magnetic Reconnection in a Solar Flare , 1996 .

[254]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Pulsed acceleration in solar flares , 1994 .

[255]  P. Robinson,et al.  Electron-Cyclotron Maser Theory for Noninteger Ratio Emission Frequencies in Solar Microwave Spike Bursts , 1996 .

[256]  T. Tajima,et al.  Dynamic magnetic x-points , 1981 .

[257]  R. Winglee,et al.  The electron-cyclotron maser instability as a source of plasma radiation. [Solar radio bursts] , 1986 .

[258]  C. Jager Solar flares and particle acceleration , 1986 .

[259]  Y. Litvinenko Particle Acceleration in Reconnecting Current Sheets with a Nonzero Magnetic Field , 1996 .

[260]  S. Akasofu Dynamics of the Magnetosphere , 1979 .

[261]  A. Emslie,et al.  The Physics of Solar Flares , 2009 .

[262]  G. Hurford High Spatial Resolution Solar Microwave Observations , 1982 .

[263]  R. Rosner,et al.  Erratum: Cosmic Flare Transients: Constraints upon Models for Energy Storage and Release Derived from the Event Frequency Distribution , 1978 .

[264]  T. Tajima,et al.  Current loop coalescence model of solar flares , 1987 .

[265]  A. Krüger Introduction to Solar Radio Astronomy and Radio Physics , 1979 .

[266]  Reuven Ramaty,et al.  Backscatter, anisotropy, and polarization of solar hard X-rays , 1978 .

[267]  G. Simnett,et al.  A dominant role for protons at the onset of solar flares , 1986 .

[268]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  YOHKOH OBSERVATION OF THE SOURCE REGIONS OF SOLAR NARROWBAND, MILLISECOND SPIKE EVENTS , 1997 .

[269]  G. Fleishman,et al.  Millisecond solar radio spikes , 1998 .

[270]  S. White,et al.  Precipitation from an asymmetric magnetic flux tube , 1981 .

[271]  D. Melrose,et al.  Electron cyclotron maser emission near the cutoff frequencies , 1983 .

[272]  D. Melrose Plasma astrophysics: Nonthermal processes in diffuse magnetized plasmas. Volume 1 - The emission, absorption and transfer of waves in plasmas , 1980 .

[273]  小野 周,et al.  L. Spitzer: Physics of Fully Ionized Gases, Interscience Tracts on Physics and astronomy, New york, 1956, 105頁, 13×21cm. , 1956 .

[274]  E. Priest,et al.  Photospheric Magnetic Field Evolution and Eruptive Flares , 1995 .

[275]  A. Emslie,et al.  The Electrical Current Structure Associated with Solar Flare Electrons Accelerated by Large-Scale Electric Fields , 1995 .

[276]  R. Lin,et al.  Directionality of Flare-accelerated α-Particles at the Sun , 1997 .

[277]  A. Fludra,et al.  THE BRIGHT LOOP-TOP KERNELS IN YOHKOH X-RAY FLARES , 1998 .

[278]  J. Meyer,et al.  Energetic-particle abundances in impulsive solar flare events , 1994 .

[279]  R. Winglee,et al.  Electron-cyclotron maser emission from the sun and stars: Variations with plasma temperature and density , 1986 .

[280]  T. Forbes,et al.  Reconnection and Field Line Shrinkage in Solar Flares , 1996 .

[281]  J. Sakai,et al.  Proton Acceleration near an X-Type Magnetic Reconnection Region , 1998 .

[282]  R. Canfield,et al.  Energetics and dynamics in a large solar flare of 1989 March , 1992 .

[283]  P. Sprangle,et al.  Evolution of the axial electron cyclotron maser instability, with applications to solar microwave spikes , 1987 .

[284]  A. Benz Radio spikes and the fragmentation of flare energy release , 1985 .

[285]  K. Wenzel,et al.  Energy spectra of ions from impulsive solar flares , 1992 .

[286]  G. A. Gary,et al.  Plasma Beta above a Solar Active Region: Rethinking the Paradigm , 2001 .

[287]  G. Simon,et al.  Solar active region evolution : comparing models with observations : proceedings of Fourteenth International Summer Workshop National Solar Observatory/Sacramento Peak, Sunspot, New Mexico 88349, USA, 30 August - 3 September 1993 , 1994 .

[288]  Ronald L. Moore,et al.  A new path for the electron bulk energization in solar flares: Fermi acceleration by magnetohydrodynamic turbulence in reconnection outflows , 1994 .

[289]  Spatial analysis of solar type III events associated with narrow band spikes at metric wavelengths , 2001, astro-ph/0103491.

[290]  S. Kane Spatial structure of high energy photon sources in solar flares , 1983 .

[291]  C. McKee,et al.  Particle acceleration mechanisms in astrophysics , 1979 .

[292]  R. Winglee,et al.  The electron-cyclotron maser instability as the source of solar type V continuum , 1986 .

[293]  E. Fenimore,et al.  Spatial structure of greater than 100 keV X-ray sources in solar flares , 1982 .

[294]  P. Martens,et al.  First detection of correlated electron beams and plasma jets in radio and soft X-ray data , 1994 .

[295]  D. Melrose A Solar Flare Model Based on Magnetic Reconnection between Current-carrying Loops , 1997 .

[296]  H. Dreicer,et al.  Electron and Ion Runaway in a Fully Ionized Gas. I , 1959 .

[297]  Michael E. Brown,et al.  Introduction to Space Physics , 1995 .

[298]  R. Bingham,et al.  Simulation studies of electron acceleration by ion ring distributions in solar flares , 1990 .

[299]  R. Murphy,et al.  Surprisingly Intense Neutron Emission from a Flare behind the Limb of the Sun , 1999 .

[300]  D. Forrest,et al.  Rapid acceleration of energetic particles in the 1982 February 8 solar flare , 1986 .

[301]  Enrico Fermi,et al.  On the Origin of the Cosmic Radiation , 1949 .

[302]  D. Eichler Particle acceleration in solar flares by cyclotron damping of cascading turbulence , 1979 .

[303]  H. Hudson,et al.  Implosions in Coronal Transients , 2000, The Astrophysical journal.

[304]  L. Vlahos Electron cyclotron maser emission from solar flares , 1987 .

[305]  Leon Golub,et al.  Dynamic Responses to Magnetic Reconnection in Solar Arcades , 1998 .

[306]  P. Pritchett Electron‐cyclotron maser instability in relativistic plasmas , 1986 .

[307]  G. Holman Acceleration of Runaway Electrons and Joule Heating in Solar Flares , 1985 .

[308]  P. Robinson Escape of fundamental electron-cyclotron maser emission from the sun and stars , 1989 .

[309]  R. Lin,et al.  Two accelerated electron populations in the 1980 June 27 solar flare , 1993 .

[310]  T. Hirayama Theoretical model of flares and prominences , 1974 .

[311]  H. H. Plaskett The physics of the Sun , 1965 .

[312]  W. Matthaeus,et al.  Models of inertial range spectra of interplanetary magnetohydrodynamic turbulence , 1990 .

[313]  Takeo Kosugi,et al.  Electron Time-of-Flight Distances and Flare Loop Geometries Compared from CGRO and YOHKOH Observations , 1996 .

[314]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Flare fragmentation and type III productivity in the 1980 June 27 flare , 1990 .

[315]  G. Holman,et al.  A thermal/nonthermal model for solar hard X-ray bursts , 1994 .

[316]  S. Hunter,et al.  Detection of a long-duration solar gamma-ray flare on June 11, 1991 with EGRET on COMPTON-GRO , 1993 .

[317]  H. Warren,et al.  High Spatial Resolution Observations of a Hot Region in a Solar Flare with the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer , 2001 .

[318]  D. Gurnett,et al.  Energetic electrons and plasma waves associated with a solar type III radio burst , 1981 .

[319]  E. Parker Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona , 1988 .

[320]  T. Bastian,et al.  Multiple wavelength observations of an off-limb eruptive solar flare , 1993 .

[321]  M. Aschwanden,et al.  Coherent-phase or random-phase acceleration of electron beams in solar flares , 1994 .

[322]  A. Benz,et al.  Correlation of solar radio pulsations with hard X-ray emission , 1990 .

[323]  D. Heristchi Hard X-ray and gamma-ray bremsstrahlung production by high-energy protons in solar flares , 1986 .

[324]  P. Sturrock,et al.  Classification of Solar Flares , 1989 .

[325]  James M. Ryan,et al.  High-energy solar phenomena : a new era of spacecraft measurements, Waterville Valley, NH 1993 , 1994 .

[326]  L. Fisk The acceleration of energetic particles in the interplanetary medium by transit-time damping , 1976 .

[327]  P. Li Directivity and its energy dependence in solar flare energetic emission , 1995 .

[328]  Jingxiu Wang,et al.  The flare-associated magnetic changes in an active region , 1993 .

[329]  D. Rust,et al.  Energy release in solar flares , 1980 .

[330]  G. Fleishman,et al.  On the saturation of electron-cyclotron masers in solar flares , 1992 .

[331]  Jürgen Kurths,et al.  Wavelet Analysis of Solar Flare Hard X-Rays , 1998 .

[332]  H. Voelk,et al.  Hydromagnetic waves and cosmic-ray diffusion theory , 1975 .

[333]  R. Winglee Fundamental and harmonic electron cyclotron maser emission , 1985 .