Peroxisome Proliferator–Activated Receptor (cid:1) Induces NADPH Oxidase Activity in Macrophages, Leading to the Generation of LDL with PPAR- (cid:1) Activation Properties

—Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors controlling lipid and glucose metabolism as well as inflammation. PPARs are expressed in macrophages, cells that also generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we investigated whether PPARs regulate ROS production in macrophages. Different PPAR- (cid:1) , but not PPAR- (cid:2) agonists, increased the production of ROS (H 2 O 2 and O 2 .) in human and murine macrophages. PPAR- (cid:1) activation did not induce cellular toxicity, but significantly decreased intracellular glutathione levels. The increase in ROS production was not attributable to inherent prooxidant effects of the PPAR- (cid:1) agonists tested, but was mediated by PPAR- (cid:1) , because the effects were lost in bone marrow–derived macrophages from PPAR- (cid:1) (cid:1) / (cid:1) mice. The PPAR- (cid:1) –induced increase in ROS was attributable to the induction of NADPH oxidase, because (1) preincubation with the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodinium prevented the increase in ROS production; (2) PPAR- (cid:1) agonists increased O 2 . production measured by superoxide dismutase–inhibitable cytochrome c reduction; (3) PPAR- (cid:1) agonists induced mRNA levels of the NADPH oxidase subunits p47 phox , p67 phox , and gp91 phox and membrane p47 phox protein levels; and (4) induction of ROS production was abolished in p47 phox (cid:1) / (cid:1) and gp91 phox (cid:1) / (cid:1) macrophages. Finally, induction of NADPH oxidase by PPAR- (cid:1) agonists resulted in the formation of oxidized LDL metabolites that exert PPAR- (cid:1) –independent proinflammatory and PPAR- (cid:1) –dependent decrease of lipopolysaccharide-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in macrophages. These data identify a novel mechanism of autogeneration of endogenous PPAR- (cid:1) ligands via stimulation of NADPH oxidase activity. ( Circ Res . 2004;95:1174-1182.)

[1]  S. Perrey,et al.  Dual Roles for Lipolysis and Oxidation in Peroxisome Proliferation-Activator Receptor Responses to Electronegative Low Density Lipoprotein* , 2003, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[2]  I. Challis,et al.  Mildly oxidised LDL induces more macrophage death than moderately oxidised LDL: roles of peroxidation, lipoprotein‐associated phospholipase A2 and PPARγ , 2003, FEBS letters.

[3]  B. Staels,et al.  Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: new targets for the pharmacological modulation of macrophage gene expression and function , 2003, Current opinion in lipidology.

[4]  A. Shah,et al.  Mechanism of Endothelial Cell NADPH Oxidase Activation by Angiotensin II , 2003, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[5]  Henry Jay Forman,et al.  Reactive oxygen species and cell signaling: respiratory burst in macrophage signaling. , 2002, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[6]  Bao-lu Zhao,et al.  Cytotoxic effect of peroxisome proliferator fenofibrate on human HepG2 hepatoma cell line and relevant mechanisms. , 2002, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[7]  S. Chakraborty,et al.  Reaction of Reduced Flavins and Flavoproteins with Diphenyliodonium Chloride* , 2002, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[8]  B. Staels,et al.  The role of PPARs in atherosclerosis. , 2002, Trends in molecular medicine.

[9]  J. Peters,et al.  Pretreatment with troglitazone decreases lethality during endotoxemia in mice , 2002, Journal of endotoxin research.

[10]  A. Shah,et al.  Essential Role of the NADPH Oxidase Subunit p47phox in Endothelial Cell Superoxide Production in Response to Phorbol Ester and Tumor Necrosis Factor-&agr; , 2002, Circulation research.

[11]  A. Capron,et al.  Role of the Parasite-Derived Prostaglandin D2 in the Inhibition of Epidermal Langerhans Cell Migration during Schistosomiasis Infection , 2001, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[12]  W. Wilkison,et al.  Identification of a subtype selective human PPARalpha agonist through parallel-array synthesis. , 2001, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters.

[13]  T. V. van Berkel,et al.  Effect of Human Scavenger Receptor Class A Overexpression in Bone Marrow–Derived Cells on Cholesterol Levels and Atherosclerosis in ApoE-Deficient Mice , 2000, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[14]  H. Utsumi,et al.  High glucose level and free fatty acid stimulate reactive oxygen species production through protein kinase C--dependent activation of NAD(P)H oxidase in cultured vascular cells. , 2000, Diabetes.

[15]  I. Rusyn,et al.  Oxidants from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase are involved in triggering cell proliferation in the liver due to peroxisome proliferators. , 2000, Cancer research.

[16]  I. Rusyn,et al.  Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha is restricted to hepatic parenchymal cells, not Kupffer cells: implications for the mechanism of action of peroxisome proliferators in hepatocarcinogenesis. , 2000, Carcinogenesis.

[17]  D. Sorescu,et al.  NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. , 2000, Circulation research.

[18]  E. Bey,et al.  In vitro knockout of human p47phox blocks superoxide anion production and LDL oxidation by activated human monocytes. , 2000, Journal of lipid research.

[19]  T. Willson,et al.  The PPARs: from orphan receptors to drug discovery. , 2000, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[20]  C. Kunsch,et al.  Oxidative stress as a regulator of gene expression in the vasculature. , 1999, Circulation research.

[21]  J. Keller,et al.  Effects of the peroxisome proliferator clofibric acid on superoxide dismutase expression in the human HepG2 hepatoma cell line. , 1999, Biochemical pharmacology.

[22]  B. Babior NADPH oxidase: an update. , 1999, Blood.

[23]  F. Bernini,et al.  HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors reduce MMP-9 secretion by macrophages. , 1998, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[24]  R. Evans,et al.  Oxidized LDL Regulates Macrophage Gene Expression through Ligand Activation of PPARγ , 1998, Cell.

[25]  A. Boveris,et al.  Chemiluminescence and antioxidant levels during peroxisome proliferation by fenofibrate. , 1997, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[26]  T. Pineau,et al.  Targeted disruption of the alpha isoform of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gene in mice results in abolishment of the pleiotropic effects of peroxisome proliferators , 1995, Molecular and cellular biology.

[27]  J. Auwerx,et al.  Fibrates downregulate apolipoprotein C-III expression independent of induction of peroxisomal acyl coenzyme A oxidase. A potential mechanism for the hypolipidemic action of fibrates. , 1995, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[28]  J. Hénichart,et al.  Reduced and Oxidized Glutathione Ratio in Tumor Cells: Comparison of Two Measurement Methods Using HPLC and Electrochemical Detection , 1993 .

[29]  A. Couve,et al.  Induction of peroxisomal enzymes and a 64-kDa peptide in cultured mouse macrophages treated with clofibrate. , 1992, Experimental cell research.

[30]  Craig E. Thomas,et al.  The influence of medium components on Cu(2+)-dependent oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and its sensitivity to superoxide dismutase. , 1992, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[31]  M. Seeds,et al.  Flow cytometric studies of oxidative product formation by neutrophils: a graded response to membrane stimulation. , 1983, Journal of immunology.

[32]  G. Peterson,et al.  A simplification of the protein assay method of Lowry et al. which is more generally applicable. , 1977, Analytical biochemistry.

[33]  W B Jakoby,et al.  Glutathione S-transferases. The first enzymatic step in mercapturic acid formation. , 1974, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[34]  W. Valentine,et al.  Studies on the quantitative and qualitative characterization of erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase. , 1967, The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine.

[35]  R. Havel,et al.  The distribution and chemical composition of ultracentrifugally separated lipoproteins in human serum. , 1955, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[36]  T. Awata,et al.  The ligands/activators for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) and PPARgamma increase Cu2+,Zn2+-superoxide dismutase and decrease p22phox message expressions in primary endothelial cells. , 2001, Metabolism: clinical and experimental.

[37]  B. Staels,et al.  Oxidized phospholipids activate PPARalpha in a phospholipase A2-dependent manner. , 2000, FEBS letters.

[38]  N. Latruffe,et al.  Regulation of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation-dependent pathway by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and kinases. , 2000, Biochemical pharmacology.

[39]  J A Swenberg,et al.  Kupffer cell oxidant production is central to the mechanism of peroxisome proliferators. , 1999, Carcinogenesis.

[40]  J. Gimble,et al.  Effect of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Alpha Activators on Tumor Necrosis Factor Expression in Mice during Endotoxemia , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[41]  J. Fruchart,et al.  Differential toxicities of air (mO‐LDL) or copper‐oxidized LDLs (Cu‐LDL) toward endothelial cells , 1999, Journal of biochemical and molecular toxicology.

[42]  T. Ogihara,et al.  Angiotensin II type 1 receptor-mediated peroxide production in human macrophages. , 1999, Hypertension.

[43]  W. Wahli,et al.  The PPARalpha-leukotriene B4 pathway to inflammation control. , 1996, Nature.

[44]  H. Esterbauer,et al.  Continuous monitoring of in vitro oxidation of human low density lipoprotein. , 1989, Free radical research communications.

[45]  I. Carlberg,et al.  Glutathione reductase. , 1985, Methods in enzymology.

[46]  L. Flohé,et al.  Superoxide dismutase assays. , 1984, Methods in enzymology.

[47]  H. Aebi,et al.  Catalase in vitro. , 1984, Methods in enzymology.