Characterization of the Tumor Microenvironment and Tumor–Stroma Interaction by Non-invasive Preclinical Imaging

Tumors are often characterized by hypoxia, vascular abnormalities, low extracellular pH, increased interstitial fluid pressure, altered choline-phospholipid metabolism, and aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect). The impact of these tumor characteristics has been investigated extensively in the context of tumor development, progression, and treatment response, resulting in a number of non-invasive imaging biomarkers. More recent evidence suggests that cancer cells undergo metabolic reprograming, beyond aerobic glycolysis, in the course of tumor development and progression. The resulting altered metabolic content in tumors has the ability to affect cell signaling and block cellular differentiation. Additional emerging evidence reveals that the interaction between tumor and stroma cells can alter tumor metabolism (leading to metabolic reprograming) as well as tumor growth and vascular features. This review will summarize previous and current preclinical, non-invasive, multimodal imaging efforts to characterize the tumor microenvironment, including its stromal components and understand tumor–stroma interaction in cancer development, progression, and treatment response.