The history of the productivity movement

The study of the productivity movement is complicated since there are differences in terminology, in the levels of the movement, and in the institutions involved. Although such efforts as PPBS, MBO, and ZBB can affect productivity in a positive way, the focus here is on activities defined as economy, efficiency, effectiveness, which are all encompassed by generic visions of productivity. The productivity movement emerged in different intensities at the municipal, state, and federal levels. A variety of institutions are involved: private institutions (for example, the Brookings Institution), universities, professional associations (for example, the International City Management Association, the Urban Institute, the National Academy of Public Administration), and governmental units ranging from the municipal to the federal level. There are, nevertheless, recognizable trends in the productivity movement. Two discourses are possible: one based on chronology, the other on methodology. The chronological description that follows will underscore the most important periods and their environment. The methodological description will show the major productivity approaches and their evolution.