Fluorescence: basic concepts, practical aspects, and some anecdotes.

We hope that we have conveyed information of interest and value to present and future fluorescence practitioners. Those readers with a sustaining interest in this topic may wish to consult more comprehensive sources such as Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and Applications, an excellent text by Valeur, or Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy by Lakowicz. Many specialized fluorescence topics are covered in the series Topics in Fluorescence Spectroscopy (Volumes 1-6), and several volumes of Methods in Enzymology (e.g., Volumes 246 and 278) have dealt with issues in fluorescence spectroscopy. Proceedings from the International Conference on Methods and Applications of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 1997 (MAFS 97) and MAFS 98 (in press) also present fluorescence work on many different topics in biological and chemical fields. The Molecular Probes Handbook and web site (www.probes.com) are also rich sources of useful information. Finally, any reader with a question or seeking advice on some topic related to fluorescence is welcome to e-mail D.M.J. at djameson@hawaii.edu.

[1]  J. Franck,et al.  Über Zerlegung von Wasserstoffmolekülen durch angeregte Quecksilberatome , 1922 .

[2]  G. Weber,et al.  FRAGMENTATION OF BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN BY PEPSIN. I. THE ORIGIN OF THE ACID EXPANSION OF THE ALBUMIN MOLECULE. , 1964, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[3]  Bernard Valeur,et al.  New Trends in Fluorescence Spectroscopy , 2001 .

[4]  E Gratton,et al.  Interpretation of fluorescence decays in proteins using continuous lifetime distributions. , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[5]  J. Lakowicz.  Topics in fluorescence spectroscopy , 2002 .

[6]  Enrico Gratton,et al.  A multifrequency phase fluorometer using the harmonic content of a mode-locked laser , 1985 .

[7]  J. Nicolas,et al.  Homo-FRET microscopy in living cells to measure monomer-dimer transition of GFP-tagged proteins. , 2001, Biophysical journal.

[8]  I. Tatischeff,et al.  INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE EXCITATION WAVELENGTH DEPENDENCE OF THE FLUORESCENCE QUANTUM YIELD OF INDOLE , 1975, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[9]  R. D. Spencer,et al.  MEASUREMENTS OF SUBNANOSECOND FLUORESCENCE LIFETIMES WITH A CROSS‐CORRELATION PHASE FLUOROMETER * , 1969 .

[10]  G. Weber.  Polarization of the fluorescence of macromolecules. II. Fluorescent conjugates of ovalbumin and bovine serum albumin. , 1952, The Biochemical journal.

[11]  P. Pringsheim,et al.  Über den Einfluß der Konzentration auf die Polarisation der Fluoreszenz von Farbstofflösungen , 1924 .

[12]  G. Weber.  Fluorescence in biophysics: accomplishments and deficiencies. , 1997, Methods in enzymology.

[13]  G. Weber.  Fluorescence-polarization spectrum and electronic-energy transfer in proteins. , 1960, The Biochemical journal.

[14]  G. Weber,et al.  The effects of energy transfer and rotational diffusion upon the fluorescence polarization of macromolecules. , 1969, Biochemistry.

[15]  S. J. Wawilow,et al.  Die Fluoreszenzausbeute von Farbstofflösungen , 1924 .

[16]  N. Mataga,et al.  THEORY OF TIME‐DEPENDENT PHOTO‐SELECTION IN INTERACTING FIXED SYSTEMS , 1979 .

[17]  C. MacPhee,et al.  Helix-helix association of a lipid-bound amphipathic alpha-helix derived from apolipoprotein C-II. , 1999, Biochemistry.

[18]  R. D. Spencer,et al.  Fluorescence polarization: measurements with a photon-counting photometer. , 1978, The Review of scientific instruments.

[19]  J. Brochon,et al.  Analyzing the distribution of decay constants in pulse-fluorimetry using the maximum entropy method. , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[20]  E Gratton,et al.  Multifrequency phase and modulation fluorometry. , 1984, Annual review of biophysics and bioengineering.

[21]  James H. Schulman,et al.  Fluorescence and Phosphorescence , 1949 .

[22]  A. Oleinikov,et al.  Dimer/monomer equilibrium and domain separations of Escherichia coli ribosomal protein L7/L12. , 1996, Biochemistry.

[23]  J. Lakowicz.  Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy , 1983 .

[24]  S. J. Strickler,et al.  Relationship between Absorption Intensity and Fluorescence Lifetime of Molecules , 1962 .

[25]  David M. Jameson,et al.  [12] Fluorescence anisotropy applied to biomolecular interactions , 1995 .

[26]  J. Beechem,et al.  Global analysis of multiple dye fluorescence anisotropy experiments on proteins. , 1986, Biochemical Society transactions.

[27]  G. G. Stokes.  On the Change of Refrangibility of Light , 1852 .

[28]  B. Meer,et al.  Resonance Energy Transfer: Theory and Data , 1994 .

[29]  B. Valeur,et al.  Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and Applications , 2001 .

[30]  V. Subramaniam,et al.  One- and two-photon excited fluorescence lifetimes and anisotropy decays of green fluorescent proteins. , 2000, Biophysical journal.

[31]  Brian Herman,et al.  Fluorescence imaging spectroscopy and microscopy , 1996 .

[32]  L. Runnels,et al.  Theory and application of fluorescence homotransfer to melittin oligomerization. , 1995, Biophysical journal.

[33]  E Gratton,et al.  Excitation wavelength dependent fluorescence anisotropy of eosin-myosin adducts. Evidence for anisotropic rotations. , 1990, Biophysical chemistry.

[34]  P. Wolber,et al.  An analytic solution to the Förster energy transfer problem in two dimensions. , 1979, Biophysical journal.

[35]  S. I. Vavilov,et al.  XXIX. The dependence of the intensity of the fluorescence of dyes upon the wave-length of the exciting light , 1922 .

[36]  F. Duschinsky.  Eine allgemeine Theorie der zur Messung sehr kurzer Leuchtdauern dienenden Versuchsanordnungen (Fluorometer) , 1933 .

[37]  R. E. Dale,et al.  Time-Resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Biochemistry and Biology , 1983, NATO Advanced Science Institutes Series.

[38]  G. Weber,et al.  Fluorescence-polarization spectrum and electronic-energy transfer in tyrosine, tryptophan and related compounds. , 1960, The Biochemical journal.

[39]  G. Weber.  Photoelectric Method for the Measurement of the Polarization of the Fluorescence of Solutions , 1956 .

[40]  R. Bowman,et al.  Spectrophotofluorometric assay in the visible and ultraviolet. , 1955, Science.

[41]  G. Weber,et al.  Cooperative effects in binding by bovine serum albumin. II. The binding of 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate. Polarization of the ligand fluorescence and quenching of the protein fluorescence. , 1966, Biochemistry.

[42]  W. Melhuish,et al.  QUANTUM EFFICIENCIES OF FLUORESCENCE OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES: EFFECT OF SOLVENT AND CONCENTRATION OF THE FLUORESCENT SOLUTE1 , 1961 .

[43]  C J Sansonetti,et al.  Wavelengths of spectral lines in mercury pencil lamps. , 1996, Applied optics.

[44]  E Gratton,et al.  Fluorescence lifetime distributions in proteins. , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[45]  G. Weber,et al.  Determination of the absolute quantum yield of fluorescent solutions , 1957 .

[46]  Sidney Udenfriend,et al.  Fluorescence assay in biology and medicine , 1962 .

[47]  A. Kawski.  EXCITATION ENERGY TRANSFER AND ITS MANIFESTATION IN ISOTROPIC MEDIA , 1983 .

[48]  G. Weber,et al.  Ultraviolet fluorescence of the aromatic amino acids. , 1957, The Biochemical journal.

[49]  Enrico Gratton,et al.  Multifrequency cross‐correlation phase fluorometer using synchrotron radiation , 1984 .

[50]  G. Weber.  Polarization of the fluorescence of macromolecules. I. Theory and experimental method. , 1952, The Biochemical journal.

[51]  G. Weber,et al.  USE OF SENSITIZED FLUORESCENCE FOR THE STUDY OF THE EXCHANGE OF SUBUNITS IN PROTEIN AGGREGATES * , 1993, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[52]  S. McGlynn,et al.  Polarization of the Luminescence of Phenanthrene , 1962 .

[53]  G. Weber,et al.  Fluorescence polarization of the complexes of 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate with bovine serum albumin. Evidence for preferential orientation of the ligand. , 1969, Biochemistry.

[54]  J. Eisinger,et al.  Biological Molecules in their Excited States , 1970, Nature.

[55]  Th. Förster.  Energiewanderung und Fluoreszenz , 1946 .

[56]  E. Gaviola,et al.  Die Abklingungszeiten der Fluoreszenz von Farbstofflösungen , 1926 .

[57]  R. E. Hirsch.  Front-face fluorescence spectroscopy of hemoglobins. , 1994, Methods in enzymology.

[58]  S. Connell,et al.  Emission of 8Begs in the interaction of 12C with nuclei at incident energies up to 33 MeV/amu , 2001 .

[59]  B. Valeur,et al.  Multichromophoric cyclodextrins. 2. Inhomogeneous spectral broadening and directed energy hopping , 1993 .

[60]  S. S. Brody.  Instrument to Measure Fluorescence Lifetimes in the Millimicrosecond Region , 1957 .

[61]  Edward W. Voss,et al.  Fluorescein hapten : an immunological probe , 1984 .

[62]  E. Gratton,et al.  The Measurement and Analysis of Heterogeneous Emissions by Multifrequency Phase and Modulation Fluorometry , 1984 .

[63]  S. Wawilow.  Die Fluoreszenzausbeute von Farbstofflösungen als Funktion der Wellenlänge des anregenden Lichtes. II , 1927 .

[64]  David L. Andrews,et al.  Resonance Energy Transfer , 1999 .

[65]  Data analysis in frequency-domain fluorometry by the maximum entropy method — recovery of fluorescence lifetime distributions , 1990 .

[66]  D. Jameson,et al.  Quantification of protein-protein interactions using fluorescence polarization. , 1999, Methods.

[67]  D. Piston,et al.  Oligomeric state of human erythrocyte band 3 measured by fluorescence resonance energy homotransfer. , 1998, Biophysical journal.

[68]  E. Gratton,et al.  Measuring fluorescence decay times by phase-shift and modulation techniques using the high harmonic content of pulsed light sources , 1980 .

[69]  A. Liljas,et al.  Structure of the C-terminal domain of the ribosomal protein L7/L12 from Escherichia coli at 1.7 A. , 1987, Journal of molecular biology.

[70]  V. Agranovich,et al.  Electronic excitation energy transfer in condensed matter , 1982 .

[71]  James N. Demas,et al.  Excited State Lifetime Measurements , 1983 .

[72]  B. Valeur,et al.  Fluorescence depolarization by electronic energy transfer in donor–acceptor pairs of like and unlike chromophores , 1991 .

[73]  R. D. Spencer,et al.  Influence of Brownian Rotations and Energy Transfer upon the Measurements of Fluorescence Lifetime , 1970 .

[74]  S. Scarlata,et al.  Membrane-induced alterations in HIV-1 Gag and matrix protein-protein interactions. , 1998, Journal of molecular biology.

[75]  E Gratton,et al.  Resolvability of fluorescence lifetime distributions using phase fluorometry. , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[76]  G. Weber,et al.  Oligomeric protein associations: transition from stochastic to deterministic equilibrium. , 1991, Biochemistry.

[77]  J. Callis,et al.  CALORIMETRIC, PHOTOMETRIC AND LIFETIME DETERMINATIONS OF FLUORESCENCE YIELDS OF FLUORESCEIN DYES * , 1969, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[78]  E. Gratton,et al.  Role of frequency domain optical spectroscopy in the detection of neonatal brain hemorrhage--a newborn piglet study. , 2000, The Journal of maternal-fetal medicine.

[79]  Harald B. Steen.  Wavelength dependence of the quantum yield of fluorescence and photoionization of indoles , 1974 .

[80]  F. Perrin,et al.  Théorie quantique des transferts d’activation entre molécules de même espèce. Cas des solutions fluorescentes , 1932 .

[81]  Th. Förster.  Zwischenmolekulare Energiewanderung und Fluoreszenz , 1948 .

[82]  G. Weber,et al.  Construction and performance of a scanning, photon-counting spectrofluorometer. , 1976, The Review of scientific instruments.

[83]  E. Gratton,et al.  A continuously variable frequency cross-correlation phase fluorometer with picosecond resolution. , 1983, Biophysical journal.

[84]  G. Weber,et al.  Physical heterogeneity of muscle glycogen phosphorylase revealed by hydrostatic pressure dissociation. , 1993, Biochemistry.

[85]  G. Weber.  Dependence of the polarization of the fluorescence on the concentration , 1954 .

[86]  Christopher C. Davis,et al.  Building scientific apparatus : a practical guide to design and construction , 1991 .

[87]  L. Brand,et al.  Resonance energy transfer: methods and applications. , 1994, Analytical biochemistry.