Self‐Determination Theory and the Relation of Autonomy to Self‐Regulatory Processes and Personality Development

The struggle for freedom has been a dominant political theme throughout history. Repeatedly, repressive regimes have gained control over countries, eventually to be challenged by one or more rebellious individuals who topple the tyranny and proclaim freedom. Evidence of such conflicts can be found in the Greek war cry, “Freedom or death,” a sentiment echoed by Patrick Henry’s famous demand, “Give me liberty or give me death.” In more recent times this struggle has been reflected in the actions of such people as Archbishop Desmond Tutu and the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, who worked to promote their people’s voices and self-governance. Through the millennia and across cultures an analogous struggle for self-governance has also played out at the psychological level of individuals during development. Born with an inherent tendency toward self-organization and growth, individuals struggle to act with volition and integrity amid social forces that can make them feel controlled like pawns or helpless (de Charms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985b). At this individual level of analysis, it is not tyrannical political systems, but rather more proximal interpersonal forces in the everyday contexts of people’s lives, which represent the primary sources of control. That is, the salient controls for most people stem from external pressures, rewards, or contingent approval of peers, parents, teachers, managers, and other significant people. This personal struggle between the experience of autonomy and its impingement by control represents a backdrop for every human life. Regarding conflicts over freedom at the historical, sociopolitical, and economic levels, many thinkers have stressed the importance of freedom and self-governance as a component of healthy development and successful societies (e.g., Sen, 1999). Yet whereas political and economic freedom has many champions, within the discipline of psychology the importance of autonomy has had few proponents. Various mainstream