Evaluation of Planetary Boundary Layer Parameterizations in Tropical Cyclones by Comparison of In Situ Observations and High-Resolution Simulations of Hurricane Isabel (2003). Part I: Initialization, Maximum Winds, and the Outer-Core Boundary Layer

In this study, thefirst of two parts, the planetary boundarylayer (PBL) depicted in high-resolution Weather Research and Forecast Model (WRF) simulations of Hurricane Isabel (2003) is studied and evaluated by direct comparisons with in situ data obtained during the Coupled Boundary Layer and Air‐Sea Transfer Experiment (CBLAST). In particular, two boundary layer schemes are evaluated: the Yonsei University (YSU) parameterization and the Mellor‐Yamada‐Janjic´ (MYJ) parameterization. Investigation of these schemes is useful since they are available for use with WRF, are both widely used, and are based on entirely different methods for simulating the PBL. In this first part, the model domains and initialization are described. For additional realism of the low-level thermodynamic environment, a simple mixed layer ocean model is used to simulate ocean cooling. The YSU and MYJ schemes are discussed, along with some modifications. Standard measures of the accuracy of the hurricane simulations, such as track, maximum surface wind speed, and minimum surface pressure are describedforavarietyofparameterchoicesandforthetwoparameterizations.Theeffectsontrackandintensity of increased horizontal and vertical resolutions are also shown. A modification of the original YSU and MYJ schemes to have ocean roughness lengths more in agreement with recent studies considerably improves the results of both schemes.Instantaneous wind maximaon the innermost grid with 1.33-kmresolutionare shown to be an accurate representation of the simulated 1-min sustained winds. Thesimulatedboundarylayersareevaluatedby directcomparison ofthePBLassimulatedandasobserved by in situ data from the CBLAST experiment in the ‘‘outer core’’ region of the storm. The two PBL schemes and their modifiedcounterparts reproduce the observed PBL remarkably well. Comparisonsare also made to the observed vertical fluxes of momentum, heat, and moisture. In Part II, the detailed comparisons of the intensities and structures of the simulated and observed innercore boundary layers are presented, and the reasons for the differences are discussed.

[1]  Yuqing Wang.  Vortex Rossby waves in a numerically simulated tropical cyclone. Part I: Overall structure, potential vorticity, and kinetic energy budgets , 2002 .

[2]  J. Kain,et al.  A One-Dimensional Entraining/Detraining Plume Model and Its Application in Convective Parameterization , 1990 .

[3]  P. Black,et al.  Turbulent Fluxes in the Hurricane Boundary Layer. Part II: Latent Heat Flux , 2007 .

[4]  W. Frank,et al.  The Structure and Energetics of the Tropical Cyclone I. Storm Structure , 1977 .

[5]  Timothy A. Reinhold,et al.  Hurricane Andrew's Landfall in South Florida. Part I: Standardizing Measurements for Documentation of Surface Wind Fields , 1996 .

[6]  W. Skamarock.  Evaluating Mesoscale NWP Models Using Kinetic Energy Spectra , 2004 .

[7]  Jeffrey D. Kepert,et al.  The Dynamics of Boundary Layer Jets within the Tropical Cyclone Core. Part II: Nonlinear Enhancement , 2001 .

[8]  Jun A. Zhang,et al.  Air-sea exchange in hurricanes : Synthesis of observations from the coupled boundary layer air-sea transfer experiment , 2007 .

[9]  Jeffrey D. Kepert,et al.  The dynamics of boundary layer jets within the tropical cyclone core. Part I: Linear theory , 2001 .

[10]  J. Kossin,et al.  Mesovortices in Hurricane Isabel , 2004 .

[11]  Hugh E. Willoughby,et al.  A Numerical Study of the Impact of Vertical Shear on the Distribution of Rainfall in Hurricane Bonnie (1998) , 2003 .

[12]  Brian F. Farrell,et al.  The Structure and Dynamics of Tornado-Like Vortices , 1999 .

[13]  Michael M. Bell,et al.  Observed Structure, Evolution, and Potential Intensity of Category 5 Hurricane Isabel (2003) from 12 to 14 September , 2008 .

[14]  J. Kepert,et al.  The Boundary Layer Winds in Hurricanes Danielle (1998) and Isabel (2003) , 2008 .

[15]  M. Montgomery,et al.  Secondary eyewall formation in two idealized, full-physics modeled hurricanes , 2008 .

[16]  Robert W. Burpee,et al.  Structure of the Eye and Eyewall of Hurricane Hugo (1989) , 2008 .

[17]  Mark D. Powell,et al.  The HRD real-time hurricane wind analysis system , 1998 .

[18]  T. Marchok,et al.  The Operational GFDL Coupled Hurricane–Ocean Prediction System and a Summary of Its Performance , 2007 .

[19]  J. Dudhia,et al.  A Revised Approach to Ice Microphysical Processes for the Bulk Parameterization of Clouds and Precipitation , 2004 .

[20]  P. Black,et al.  First direct measurements of enthalpy flux in the hurricane boundary layer: The CBLAST results , 2008 .

[21]  Song‐You Hong,et al.  Improvement of the K-profile Model for the Planetary Boundary Layer based on Large Eddy Simulation Data , 2003 .

[22]  G. Powers,et al.  A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Version 3 , 2008 .

[23]  G. Mellor,et al.  A Hierarchy of Turbulence Closure Models for Planetary Boundary Layers. , 1974 .

[24]  D. Ortt.  Effect of environmental moisture on rainbands in Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (2005) , 2008 .

[25]  S. Aberson,et al.  A Photograph of a Wavenumber-2 Asymmetry in the Eye of Hurricane Erin , 2006 .

[26]  P. Black,et al.  Turbulent Fluxes in the Hurricane Boundary Layer. Part I: Momentum Flux , 2007 .

[27]  Jeffrey D. Kepert,et al.  Observed Boundary Layer Wind Structure and Balance in the Hurricane Core. Part I: Hurricane Georges , 2006 .

[28]  I. Troen,et al.  A simple model of the atmospheric boundary layer; sensitivity to surface evaporation , 1986 .

[29]  Chun‐Chieh Wu,et al.  Current understanding of tropical cyclone structure and intensity changes – a review , 2004 .

[30]  J. Dudhia.  Prediction of Atlantic tropical cyclones with the Advanced Hurricane WRF (AHW) model , 2008 .

[31]  R. Anthes,et al.  Response of the Hurricane Boundary Layer to Changes of Sea Surface Temperature in a Numerical Model , 1978 .

[32]  Wei Wang,et al.  Prediction of Landfalling Hurricanes with the Advanced Hurricane WRF Model , 2008 .

[33]  Thomas A. Guinn,et al.  Polygonal Eyewalls, Asymmetric Eye Contraction, and Potential Vorticity Mixing in Hurricanes , 1999 .

[34]  M. Montgomery,et al.  Axisymmetric Spindown Dynamics of Hurricane-like Vortices , 2001 .

[35]  D. Nolan.  Instabilities in hurricane-like boundary layers , 2005 .

[36]  R. Anthes.  Development of Asymmetries in a Three-Dimensional Numerical Model of the Tropical Cyclone1 , 1972 .

[37]  H. Charnock.  Wind stress on a water surface , 1955 .

[38]  I. Ginis,et al.  Real-Case Simulations of Hurricane-Ocean Interaction Using A High-Resolution Coupled Model: Effects on Hurricane Intensity , 2000 .

[39]  David S. Nolan,et al.  Nonhydrostatic, Three-Dimensional Perturbations to Balanced, Hurricane-like Vortices. Part I: Linearized Formulation, Stability, and Evolution , 2002 .

[40]  H. Pan,et al.  Nonlocal Boundary Layer Vertical Diffusion in a Medium-Range Forecast Model , 1996 .

[41]  Yubao Liu,et al.  A Multiscale Numerical Study of Hurricane Andrew (1992). Part I: Explicit Simulation and Verification , 1997 .

[42]  Lloyd J. Shapiro,et al.  The Asymmetric Boundary layer Flow Under a Translating Hurricane , 1983 .

[43]  S. Aberson,et al.  Hurricane Isabel (2003): New Insights Into the Physics of Intense Storms. Part II: Extreme Localized Wind , 2006 .

[44]  Yoshio Kurihara,et al.  Prediction Experiments of Hurricane Gloria (1985) Using a Multiply Nested Movable Mesh Model , 1990 .

[45]  W. Timothy Liu,et al.  Microwave Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones from Space , 2002 .

[46]  G. Mellor,et al.  Development of a turbulence closure model for geophysical fluid problems , 1982 .

[47]  Yuqing Wang,et al.  Structure and Formation of an Annular Hurricane Simulated in a Fully Compressible, Nonhydrostatic Model—TCM4* , 2008 .

[48]  Christopher A. Davis,et al.  Numerical Simulations of the Genesis of Hurricane Diana (1984). Part II: Sensitivity of Track and Intensity Prediction , 2002 .

[49]  Jordan G. Powers,et al.  A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Version 2 , 2005 .

[50]  Da‐Lin Zhang,et al.  A Multiscale Numerical Study of Hurricane Andrew (1992). Part II: Kinematics and Inner-Core Structures , 1999 .

[51]  Michael M. Bell,et al.  Hurricane Isabel (2003): New Insights into the Physics of Intense Storms. Part I. Mean Vortex Structure and Maximum Intensity Estimates , 2006 .

[52]  C. Guard,et al.  Tropical Cyclone Report , 1989 .

[53]  Steven Businger,et al.  An Observational Case for the Prevalence of Roll Vortices in the Hurricane Boundary Layer , 2005 .

[54]  Zavisa Janjic,et al.  The Step-Mountain Coordinate: Physical Package , 1990 .

[55]  Raymond T. Pollard,et al.  The deepening of the wind-Mixed layer , 1973 .

[56]  Chang-Hoi Ho,et al.  Parameterizations for Cloud Overlapping and Shortwave Single-Scattering Properties for Use in General Circulation and Cloud Ensemble Models , 1998 .

[57]  M. Powell,et al.  Reduced drag coefficient for high wind speeds in tropical cyclones , 2003, Nature.

[58]  J. Dudhia,et al.  A New Vertical Diffusion Package with an Explicit Treatment of Entrainment Processes , 2006 .

[59]  P. Zhu.  Simulation and parameterization of the turbulent transport in the hurricane boundary layer by large eddies , 2008 .

[60]  E. Mlawer,et al.  Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave , 1997 .

[61]  Jun A. Zhang,et al.  Effects of Roll Vortices on Turbulent Fluxes in the Hurricane Boundary Layer , 2008 .

[62]  Yoshio Kurihara,et al.  The GFDL Hurricane Prediction System and Its Performance in the 1995 Hurricane Season , 1998 .

[63]  Daniel P. Stern,et al.  Evaluation of Planetary Boundary Layer Parameterizations in Tropical Cyclones by Comparison of In Situ Observations and High-Resolution Simulations of Hurricane Isabel (2003). Part II: Inner-Core Boundary Layer and Eyewall Structure , 2009 .

[64]  J. Kossin,et al.  On the distribution of subsidence in the hurricane eye , 2007 .

[65]  R. Tuleya,et al.  Structure of a Tropical Cyclone Developed in a Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulation Model , 1974 .

[66]  Chelle Gentemann,et al.  Near real time global optimum interpolated microwave SSTs: applications to hurricane intensity forecasting , 2006 .

[67]  Scott A. Braun,et al.  Sensitivity of High-Resolution Simulations of Hurricane Bob (1991) to Planetary Boundary Layer Parameterizations , 2000 .

[68]  K. Emanuel.  Sensitivity of Tropical Cyclones to Surface Exchange Coefficients and a Revised Steady-State Model incorporating Eye Dynamics , 1995 .

[69]  Nicolas Reul,et al.  On the limiting aerodynamic roughness of the ocean in very strong winds , 2004 .

[70]  K. Ooyama,et al.  Numerical Simulation of the Life Cycle of Tropical Cyclones , 1969 .