Methodological Challenges Confronted when Conducting Management Research in China

This article addresses some fundamental methodological issues confronting management researchers undertaking research in China. Among other things, it considers the following: cultural factors that might impact on what is a researchable question; sampling issues; difficulties in developing valid research instruments; problems pertaining to data collection; and the challenges of data interpretation. While the issues are by no means unique to China, there are a number of matters that require special attention in the Chinese context. Failure to consider such methodological problems might potentially call into question the findings of otherwise important management studies. Specific recommendations are provided as to how these challenges can be successfully dealt with.

[1]  Rosalie L. Tung.  Strategic management thought in East Asia , 1994 .

[2]  J. Child.  A foreign perspective on the management of , 1991 .

[3]  T. Fang.  A Critique of Hofstede’s Fifth National Culture Dimension , 2003 .

[4]  Mary B. Teagarden,et al.  Human Resource Management in Cross-Cultural Contexts: Emic Practices versus Etic Philosophies , 1997 .

[5]  Yuan Lu,et al.  Treasures in the China house: a review of management and organizational research on Greater China , 2001 .

[6]  R. Inglehart.  Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies , 1997 .

[7]  C. Gopinath.  Alternative Approaches to Indigenous Management in India , 1998 .

[8]  Jean-Claude Usunier,et al.  International and Cross-Cultural Management Research , 1998 .

[9]  J. Cullen,et al.  Cultural Influence, Questionnaire Formation and Manager Response in Sino-American International Joint Ventures , 2003 .

[10]  John Child,et al.  Culture and management in China , 2003 .

[11]  R. Inglehart,et al.  Does Latin America Exist? (And is There a Confucian Culture?): A Global Analysis of Cross-Cultural Differences , 1997, PS: Political Science & Politics.

[12]  F. V. D. van de Vijver,et al.  Methodological Issues in Psychological Research on Culture , 2000 .

[13]  M. Tayeb,et al.  Organizations and National Culture: Methodology Considered , 1994 .

[14]  Melanie Manion,et al.  Survey Research in the Study of Contemporary China: Learning from Local Samples , 1994, The China Quarterly.

[15]  N. Adler,et al.  In Search of Appropriate Methodology: From Outside The People's Republic of China Looking In , 1989 .

[16]  S. Redding.  Cognition As An Aspect Of Culture And Its Relation To Management Processes: An Exploratory View Of The Chinese Case , 1980 .

[17]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior , 2002 .

[18]  Uma Sekaran,et al.  Methodological and Theoretical Issues and Advancements in Cross-Cultural Research , 1983 .

[19]  E. Goffman.  On face-work; an analysis of ritual elements in social interaction. , 1955, Psychiatry.

[20]  Ming-Jer Chen,et al.  Transcending Paradox: The Chinese “Middle Way” Perspective , 2002 .

[21]  N. Adler.  A Typology of Management Studies Involving Culture , 1983 .

[22]  H. Triandis.  Cross-cultural industrial and organizational psychology. , 1994 .

[23]  Eric W. K. Tsang.  Inside Story: Mind Your Identity When Conducting Cross National Research , 1998 .

[24]  Bor-Shiuan Cheng,et al.  Cultural Relativity in Action: A Comparison of Self-Ratings Made by Chinese and U.S. Workers , 1991 .

[25]  P. Christopher Earley,et al.  Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and , 1997 .

[26]  Nico H. Frijda,et al.  On the Scope and Methods of Cross-Cultural Research , 1966 .

[27]  Mark C. Butler,et al.  Toward a Theory of Comparative Management Research: An Idiographic Case Study of The Best International Human Resources Management Project , 1995 .

[28]  J. Mackie,et al.  The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioural Science , 1965 .

[29]  F.J.R. van de Vijver,et al.  Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research , 1997 .

[30]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  The social psychology of Chinese people. , 1986 .

[31]  Lucian W. Pye.  Social Science Theories in Search of Chinese Realities , 1992, The China Quarterly.

[32]  J. Berry,et al.  Field Methods in Cross-Cultural Research , 1986 .

[33]  R. Nisbett,et al.  Culture and systems of thought: holistic versus analytic cognition. , 2001, Psychological review.

[34]  M. Bond,et al.  The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth , 1988 .

[35]  Dee G. Appley.  Beyond Culture , 1977 .

[36]  Mary B. Teagarden,et al.  The transfer of human resource management technology in Sino‐U.S. cooperative ventures: Problems and solutions , 1988 .

[37]  Chung-Ming Lau,et al.  Asian Management Research: Frontiers and Challenges , 2002 .

[38]  M. D. Dunnette.  Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , 2005 .

[39]  M. Whyte,et al.  Organizational Behavior in Chinese Society , 1981 .

[40]  G. Hamilton.  Business networks and economic development in East and Southeast Asia , 1991 .

[41]  Abhik Roy,et al.  Chinese puzzles and paradoxes: conducting business research in China , 2001 .

[42]  L. J. Williams,et al.  Recent Advances in Causal Modeling Methods for Organizational and Management Research , 2003 .

[43]  D. Randall,et al.  Exploring subcultural differences in hofstede's value survey: The case of the Chinese , 1991 .

[44]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  Contributing to Global Management Knowledge: A Case for High Quality Indigenous Research , 2004 .

[45]  A. Kroeber,et al.  Culture, a critical review of concepts and definitions , 1953 .

[46]  H. Triandis.  The analysis of subjective culture , 1973 .

[47]  J. Alston,et al.  The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism , 1992 .

[48]  K. Doran.  Lessons learned in cross-cultural research of Chinese and North American consumers , 2002 .

[49]  James L. McGregor.  One Billion Customers: Lessons from the Front Lines of Doing Business in China , 2005 .

[50]  J. Boddewyn.  Comparative management and marketing , 1969 .

[51]  David Chan.  Questions about Change over Time in Cross-Cultural Organizational Research , 2002 .

[52]  M. Zax,et al.  Cultural influences on response style: comparisons of Japanese and American college students. , 1967, The Journal of social psychology.

[53]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  Loyalty to supervisor vs. organizational commitment: Relationships to employee performance in China. , 2002 .

[54]  G. Redding.  The Capitalist Business System of China and its Rationale , 2002 .

[55]  D. Ho.  On the Concept of Face , 1976, American Journal of Sociology.

[56]  Joseph Needham,et al.  The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China , 1979 .

[57]  The Shorter Science and Civilization in China , 1994, Nature.

[58]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Culture′s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values , 1980 .

[59]  楊國樞,et al.  Chinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions of Culture , 1987 .

[60]  Karlene H. Roberts,et al.  On looking at an elephant: An evaluation of cross-cultural research related to organizations. , 1970 .

[61]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  Utilizing Printed Media to Understand Desired Leadership Attributes in the People's Republic of China , 2003 .

[62]  Heather M. Coon,et al.  Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. , 2002, Psychological bulletin.

[63]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  The Psychology of the Chinese people , 1986 .

[64]  R. Yin.  Case Study Research: Design and Methods , 1984 .

[65]  R. Inglehart,et al.  Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values , 2000, American Sociological Review.

[66]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  Management and organizations in the Chinese context , 2000 .

[67]  Chao C. Chen,et al.  On the Intricacies of the Chinese Guanxi: A Process Model of Guanxi Development , 2004 .

[68]  L. J. Williams,et al.  Recent Advances in Causal Modeling Methods for Organizational and Management Research , 2003 .

[69]  Carol R. Ember,et al.  Cross-Cultural Research Methods , 2000 .

[70]  N. Nummela,et al.  First the Sugar, Then the Eggs . . . Or the Other Way Round? Mixing Methods in International Business Research , 2004 .

[71]  Philippe Lasserre,et al.  Strategies for Asia Pacific : beyond the crisis , 1999 .

[72]  A. Tsui,et al.  Management and Organizations in the Chinese Context: An Overview , 2000 .

[73]  Michael R. Mullen.  Diagnosing Measurement Equivalence in Cross-National Research , 1995 .

[74]  T. Fang,et al.  From "Onion" to "Ocean": Paradox and Change in National Cultures , 2005 .

[75]  Guo-ming Chen,et al.  Differences in Self-Disclosure Patterns among Americans Versus Chinese , 1995 .

[76]  J. Everett,et al.  Response Styles in a Cross-Cultural Managerial Study , 1984 .

[77]  Ajay Das,et al.  Methodological Issues in Empirical Cross-cultural Research: A Survey of the Management Literature , 1997 .

[78]  K. Redfern,et al.  An Empirical Investigation of the Ethics Position Questionnaire in the People's Republic of China , 2004 .

[79]  Ying Fan.  Questioning guanxi: definition, classification and implications , 2002 .

[80]  Abraham Kaplan,et al.  The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioural Science , 1965 .

[81]  D. Ralston,et al.  THE COSMOPOLITAN CHINESE MANAGER : FINDINGS OF A STUDY ON MANAGERIAL VALUES ACROSS THE SIX REGIONS OF CHINA , 1996 .

[82]  Jagdip Singh,et al.  Measurement Issues in Cross-National Research , 1995 .

[83]  F. K. Berrien.  Methodological and Related Problems in Cross-Cultural Research , 1967 .

[84]  B. McSweeney.  Hofstede’s Model of National Cultural Differences and their Consequences: A Triumph of Faith - a Failure of Analysis , 2002 .

[85]  Raffaella Ocone,et al.  Introduction on Methodology* , 1967, A Textbook of Christian Ethics.

[86]  Joo-yup Kim,et al.  The Concept and Dynamics of Face: Implications for Organizational Behavior in Asia , 1998 .

[87]  H. Hu.  THE CHINESE CONCEPTS OF “FACE” , 1944 .

[88]  S. Gordon Redding,et al.  Comparative Management Theory: Jungle, Zoo or Fossil Bed? , 1994 .

[89]  Carolyn P. Egri,et al.  Special Issue on Corporate Transformation in the People's Republic of China: Generation Cohorts and Personal Values: A Comparison of China and the United States , 2004, Organ. Sci..

[90]  David Matsumoto,et al.  The Handbook of Culture and Psychology , 2001 .

[91]  R. Nisbett.  The geography of thought : how Asians and Westerners think differently--and why , 2003 .

[92]  Catherine Welch,et al.  Handbook of qualitative research methods for international business , 2004 .

[93]  Mary Ann Von Glinow,et al.  Paradoxes of Organizational Theory and Research: Using the Case of China to Illustrate National Contingency , 1994 .

[94]  O. Shenkar,et al.  Handbook for international management research , 2003 .

[95]  Incheol Choi,et al.  Conversing across cultures: East-West communication styles in work and nonwork contexts. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[96]  M. Bond,et al.  Experimenter language choice and ethnic affirmation by Chinese trilinguals in Hong Kong , 1984 .

[97]  Bryan S. Schaffer,et al.  A Review of Cross-Cultural Methodologies for Organizational Research: A Best- Practices Approach , 2003 .

[98]  J. Child,et al.  Regional Differences in China and their Implications for Sino-Foreign Joint Ventures , 1997 .

[99]  S. Lowe.  In the Kingdom of the Blind, the One-Eyed Man is King , 2001 .

[100]  O. Shenkar,et al.  The People’s Republic of China , 1994 .

[101]  John W. Berry,et al.  ON CROSS‐CULTURAL COMPARABILITY , 1969 .

[102]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Value Hierarchies Across Cultures , 2001 .

[103]  Sherriff T. K. Luk.  The Use of Secondary Information Published by the PRC Government , 1999 .

[104]  R. Bhagat.  Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations , 2002 .

[105]  M. Tayeb.  Conducting Research Across Cultures: Overcoming Drawbacks and Obstacles , 2001 .

[106]  Gordon Redding,et al.  The psychology of Chinese organizational behaviour. , 1986 .

[107]  Tomasz Lenartowicz,et al.  The Selection of Key Informants in IB Cross-Cultural Studies , 2004 .

[108]  Robert Doktor,et al.  From the Atlantic to the Pacific Century: Cross-Cultural Management Reviewed , 1986 .

[109]  Steven White,et al.  Rigor and Relevance in Asian Management Research: Where Are We and Where Can We Go? , 2002 .

[110]  Giana M. Eckhardt.  The Role of Culture in Conducting Trustworthy and Credible Qualitative Business Research in China , 2004 .

[111]  Howard B. Lee,et al.  Foundations of Behavioral Research , 1973 .

[112]  James G. March,et al.  Parochialism in the Evolution of a Research Community: The Case of Organization Studies , 2005, Management and Organization Review.

[113]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  On the Empirical Identification of Dimensions for Cross-Cultural Comparisons , 1989 .

[114]  Dan Landis,et al.  Handbook of Intercultural Training , 2003 .

[115]  China's statistical system and resources , 2004 .

[116]  John Child,et al.  Organizations As Adaptive Systems in Complex Environments: the Case of China , 1999 .

[117]  Mick Bennett.  RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF BILINGUAL MANAGERS TO ORGANISATIONAL QUESTIONNAIRES1 , 1977 .

[118]  S. Schwartz.  A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work , 1999 .

[119]  Mark Easterby-Smith,et al.  Cross-Cultural Collaborative Research: Toward Reflexivity , 1999 .