Adaptive prediction in speech differential encoding systems

The design of speech coders that produce high-quality highly intelligible speech at 6 to 16 kb/s while retaining robustness to background and transmission impairments is an area of current research interest. Differential encoding structures employing adaptive quantization and adaptive prediction constitute one of the most promising approaches to achieving these design objectives. This paper focuses on the design and analysis of adaptive predictors for differential encoders. Several differential encoding systems, including adaptive predictive coding, differential pulse-code modulation, noise feedback coding, direct feedback coding, and prediction error coding, are described and related. Adaptive quantizers are briefly discussed and quantitative and qualitative indicators of speech coder performance are defined. The channel model, the speech model, and the research problem statements used in the design of differential encoders and adaptive predictors are presented. The nomenclature and theory of forward and backward adaptive prediction are developed, and several new backward adaptive algorithms based on various assumptions are presented. A detailed survey of theoretical and simulation results on adaptive prediction for speech differential encoders is given, and the effects of background and transmission impairments on these systems are discussed, Finally, the impact of adaptive predictors on rate distortion theory motivated coders is indicated. Numerous areas for future research are highlighted.

[1]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[2]  B. M. Oliver.  Efficient coding , 1952 .

[3]  Peter Elias,et al.  Predictive coding-II , 1955, IRE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[4]  Joel Max,et al.  Quantizing for minimum distortion , 1960, IRE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[5]  H. Spang,et al.  Reduction of Quantizing Noise by Use of Feedback , 1962 .

[6]  F. F. Kuo,et al.  Synthesis of Optimal Filters for a Feedback Quantization System , 1963 .

[7]  J. T. Tou,et al.  Optimum Sampled-Data Systems with Quantized Control Signals , 1963, IEEE Transactions on Applications and Industry.

[8]  J. S. Meditch,et al.  Optimum design of digital control systems , 1964 .

[9]  Terrence L. Fine,et al.  Properties of an optimum digital system and applications , 1964, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[10]  Lee D. Davisson,et al.  The prediction error of stationary Gaussian time series of unknown covariance , 1965, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[11]  L. Davisson.  Theory of Adaptive Data Compression , 1966 .

[12]  D. Sakrison.  Stochastic Approximation: A Recursive Method for Solving Regression Problems1 , 1966 .

[13]  R. A. McDonald,et al.  Signal-to-noise and idle channel performance of differential pulse code modulation systems – particular applications to voice signals , 1966 .

[14]  Andrew J. Viterbi,et al.  Error bounds for convolutional codes and an asymptotically optimum decoding algorithm , 1967, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[15]  R. Larson,et al.  Optimum quantization in dynamic systems , 1967, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control.

[16]  Lee D. Davisson.  An approximate theory of prediction for data compression , 1967, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[17]  Jr. J.B. O'Neal,et al.  A bound on signal-to-quantizing noise ratios for digital encoding systems , 1967 .

[18]  H. Gish,et al.  Statistical delta modulation , 1967 .

[19]  J. D. Irwin,et al.  The design of optimum DPCM (differential pulse code modulation) encoding systems via the Kalman predictor , 1968 .

[20]  L. D. Davisson,et al.  The theoretical analysis of data compression systems , 1968 .

[21]  M. Schroeder.  Reference Signal for Signal Quality Studies , 1968 .

[22]  Frederick Jelinek.  Tree encoding of memoryless time-discrete sources with a fidelity criterion , 1969, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[23]  James S. Meditch,et al.  Stochastic Optimal Linear Estimation and Control , 1969 .

[24]  R. C. Brainard,et al.  Direct-feedback coders: Design and performance with television signals , 1969 .

[25]  IEEE Recommended Practice for Speech Quality Measurements , 1969, IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics.

[26]  Alan V. Oppenheim,et al.  Speech spectrograms using the fast Fourier transform , 1970, IEEE Spectrum.

[27]  A. Haddad,et al.  Some Properties of a Predictive Quantizing System , 1970 .

[28]  M. R. Schroeder,et al.  Adaptive predictive coding of speech signals , 1970, Bell Syst. Tech. J..

[29]  R. Curry.  Estimation and Control with Quantized Measurements , 1970 .

[30]  J. O'Neal.  Signal-to-Quantizing-Noise Ratios for Differential PCM , 1971 .

[31]  B. Atal,et al.  Speech analysis and synthesis by linear prediction of the speech wave. , 1971, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[32]  J. Flanagan.  Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception , 1971 .

[33]  C. Cutler,et al.  Delayed Encoding: Stabilizer for Adaptive Coders , 1971 .

[34]  J. Dunn.  An Experimental 9600-bits/s Voice Digitizer Employing Adaptive Prediction , 1971 .

[35]  John B. O'Neal.  Bounds on subjective performance measures for source encoding systems , 1971, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[36]  R. Marleau,et al.  Comments on "Optimum quantization in dynamic systems" , 1972 .

[37]  M. Paez,et al.  Minimum Mean-Squared-Error Quantization in Speech PCM and DPCM Systems , 1972, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[38]  L. Davisson.  Rate-distortion theory and application , 1972 .

[39]  A. Gersho.  Stochastic stability of delta modulation , 1972 .

[40]  Robert M. Gray,et al.  Review of 'Rate Distortion Theory: A Mathematical Basis for Data Compression' (Berger, T.; 1971) , 1972, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[41]  J. O'Neal,et al.  Differential PCM for Speech and Data Signals , 1972, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[42]  J.E. Gunn,et al.  Speech Data Rate Reduction Part I: Applicability of Modern Estimation Theory , 1973, IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems.

[43]  James L. Flanagan,et al.  Adaptive quantization in differential PCM coding of speech , 1973 .

[44]  J. W. Bayless,et al.  Voice signals: bit-by-bit , 1973, IEEE spectrum.

[45]  N. Jayant.  Adaptive quantization with a one-word memory , 1973 .

[46]  Jr. G. Forney,et al.  The viterbi algorithm , 1973 .

[47]  N. Jayant.  Digital coding of speech waveforms: PCM, DPCM, and DM quantizers , 1974 .

[48]  J. O'Neal,et al.  Entropy-Coded Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation (DPCM) for Speech , 1974, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[49]  J. Uddenfeldt,et al.  Adaptive Delta Modulation with Delayed Decision , 1974, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[50]  G. Saridis.  Stochastic approximation methods for identification and control--A survey , 1974 .

[51]  S. Chandra,et al.  Experimental comparison between stationary and nonstationary formulations of linear prediction applied to voiced speech analysis , 1974 .

[52]  Jerry D. Gibson,et al.  Sequentially Adaptive Prediction and Coding of Speech Signals , 1974, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[53]  A. Sage,et al.  Error and sensitivity analysis of stochastic approximation algorithms for linear system identification , 1974 .

[54]  Allen Gersho,et al.  Theory of an Adaptive Quantizer , 1973, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[55]  Martin E. Hellman,et al.  On tree coding with a fidelity criterion , 1975, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[56]  John B. Anderson,et al.  Tree encoding of speech , 1975, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[57]  Jerry Gibson.  Optimal and suboptimal estimation in differential PCM and adaptive predictive coding systems , 1975, 1975 IEEE Conference on Decision and Control including the 14th Symposium on Adaptive Processes.

[58]  J. Makhoul,et al.  Linear prediction: A tutorial review , 1975, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[59]  R.W. Schafer,et al.  Digital representations of speech signals , 1975, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[60]  P. Noll,et al.  Effects of channel errors on the signal-to-noise performance of speech-encoding systems , 1975, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[61]  N. S. Jayant.  Step-size transmitting differential coders for mobile telephony , 1975, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[62]  B. H. Batson,et al.  Simplified APC for Space Shuttle applications. [Adaptive Predictive Coding for speech transmission] , 1975 .

[63]  David J. Goodman,et al.  A Robust Adaptive Quantizer , 1975, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[64]  R. Steele,et al.  Delta Modulation Systems , 1975 .

[65]  H. Shaffer,et al.  A Real-Time Adaptive Predictive Coder Using Small Computers , 1975, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[66]  J. Melsa,et al.  The Residual Encoder - An Improved ADPCM System for Speech Digitization , 1975, IEEE Transactions on Communications.

[67]  J. Makhoul,et al.  Quantization properties of transmission parameters in linear predictive systems , 1975 .

[68]  P. Noll.  A comparative study of various quantization schemes for speech encoding , 1975, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[69]  M. Srinath,et al.  Sequential algorithm for identification of parameters of an autoregressive process , 1975 .

[70]  David L. Cohn,et al.  The relationship between an adaptive quantizer and a variance estimator (Corresp.) , 1975, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[71]  Robert M. Gray,et al.  Sliding-block source coding , 1975, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[72]  T.S. Koubanitsas.  Application of the Viterbi algorithm to adaptive delta modulation with delayed decision , 1975, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[73]  Jerry D. Gibson,et al.  Unified development of algorithms used for linear predictive coding of speech signals , 1976 .

[74]  B. Widrow,et al.  Stationary and nonstationary learning characteristics of the LMS adaptive filter , 1976, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[75]  John B. O'Neal.  Differential pulse-code modulation (PCM) with entropy coding , 1976, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[76]  Ronald S. Cheung,et al.  High quality 16 kb/s voice transmission , 1976, ICASSP.

[77]  Nuggehally Sampath Jayant,et al.  LPC analysis/Synthesis from speech inputs containing quantizing noise or additive white noise , 1976 .

[78]  Nuggehally Sampath Jayant.  Average- and Median-Based Smoothing Techniques for Improving Digital Speech Quality in the Presence of Transmission Errors , 1976, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[79]  David L. Cohn,et al.  A pitch compensating quantizer , 1976, ICASSP.

[80]  Nuggehally Sampath Jayant,et al.  Waveform quantization and coding , 1976 .

[81]  Carlo Scagliola,et al.  Performance analysis of DPCM speech-transmission systems using Kalman predictors , 1976, ICASSP.

[82]  J. Mark.  Adaptive predictive run-length encoding for analogue sources , 1976 .

[83]  B. Gold,et al.  Digital speech networks , 1977, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[84]  R. Cheung.  Application of CVSD with delayed decision to narrowband/Wideband tandem , 1977 .

[85]  G. Bierman.  Factorization methods for discrete sequential estimation , 1977 .

[86]  L. Rabiner,et al.  Tandem connections of wideband and narrowband speech communication systems part 2–wideband-to-narrowband link , 1977, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[87]  Jon W. Mark,et al.  APPLICATION OF ITERATIVE ALGORITHMS TO ADAPTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING , 1977 .

[88]  A. Goldberg.  Predictive coding with delayed decision. , 1977 .

[89]  N. Jayant.  Pitch-adaptive DPCM coding of speech with two-bit quantization and fixed spectrum prediction , 1977, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[90]  L. Rabiner,et al.  Tandem connections of wideband and narrowband speech communications systems: Part 1–narrowband-to-wideband link , 1977, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[91]  Bede Liu,et al.  Deterministic and stochastic stability of adaptive differential pulse code modulation , 1977, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[92]  Aaron E. Rosenberg,et al.  On reducing the buzz in LPC synthesis , 1977 .

[93]  Jerry D. Gibson,et al.  Fixed-Tap ADPCM System Divergence and a Bound on the Robust Quantizer Overload Point , 1978, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[94]  J. D. Gibson,et al.  Backward adaptive predictor coefficient identification in ADPCM with robust quantization and PCQ , 1978 .

[95]  Stephen G. Wilson,et al.  Adaptive tree encoding of discrete-time sources with speech applications , 1978 .

[96]  Ronald W. Schafer,et al.  Digital Processing of Speech Signals , 1978 .

[97]  Alan V. Oppenheim,et al.  All-pole modeling of degraded speech , 1978 .

[98]  Jerry D. Gibson,et al.  Sequentially Adaptive Backward Prediction in ADPCM Speech Coders , 1978, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[99]  P. Noll.  On predictive quantizing schemes , 1978, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[100]  Aaron E. Rosenberg,et al.  On reducing the buzz in LPC synthesis , 1978 .

[101]  Nuggehally Sampath Jayant,et al.  Tree-Encoding of Speech Using the (M, L)-Algorithm and Adaptive Quantization , 1978, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[102]  R. Crochiere,et al.  Speech Coding , 1979, IEEE Transactions on Communications.

[103]  Bishnu S. Atal,et al.  Optimizing predictive coders for minimum audible noise , 1979, ICASSP.

[104]  John Makhoul,et al.  Adaptive noise spectral shaping and entropy coding in predictive coding of speech , 1979 .

[105]  Bishnu S. Atal,et al.  On synthesizing natural-sounding speech by linear prediction , 1979, ICASSP.

[106]  Stephen G. Wilson,et al.  Adaptive Tree Encoding of Speech at 8000 Bits/s with a Frequency-Weighted Error Criterion , 1979, IEEE Trans. Commun..

[107]  Khalid Sayood,et al.  On the "Desired behavior" of adaptive signal processing algorithms , 1979, ICASSP.

[108]  B. Atal,et al.  Predictive coding of speech signals and subjective error criteria , 1979 .

[109]  C. Scagliola,et al.  Objective and subjective performance of tandem connections of waveform coders with an LPC vocoder , 1979, The Bell System Technical Journal.

[110]  B. Atal,et al.  Improved quantizer for adaptive predictive coding of speech signals at low bit rates , 1980, ICASSP.

[111]  B. Anderson,et al.  Optimal Filtering , 1979, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.