Uncertainties in the fate of nitrogen I: An overview of sources of uncertainty illustrated with a Dutch case study

This study focuses on the uncertainties in the ‘fate’ of nitrogen (N) in the Netherlands. Nitrogen inputs into the Netherlands in products, by rivers, and by atmospheric deposition, and microbial and industrial fixation of atmospheric N2 amount to about 4450 Gg N y−1. About 60% of this N is transported out of the Netherlands in products. The fate of the remaining 40%, however, is less clear. We discuss uncertainties in losses to the atmosphere (as ammonia or through denitrification), by leaching and runoff, and in N accumulation in biomass and soils. These processes may account for the fate of about 40% of the N in the Netherlands, and for the fate of about 60% of the N in Dutch agricultural soils. Reducing uncertainties in the estimates of these fluxes is necessary for reducing the impact of excess N in the environment. In particular, monitoring the environmental effects of ammonia emissions and nitrate leaching to groundwater and aquatic systems requires an increased understanding of the fate of N. Uncertainties arise because (1) some N fluxes cannot be measured directly and are usually quantified indirectly as the balance in N budgets, (2) direct measurements of N fluxes have inevitable inaccuracies, (3) lack of experimental data and other information (e.g. statistics) needed for upscaling, (4) large spatial and temporal variability of fluxes, and (5) poor understanding of the processes involved. These uncertainties can be reduced by additional experimental studies and by further development of process-based models and N budget studies. We prioritize these future research needs according to a range of different criteria.

[1]  S. Seitzinger.  Denitrification In Aquatic Sediments , 1990 .

[2]  Katarina Elofsson,et al.  Cost-Effective Nutrient Reductions to the Baltic Sea , 1997 .

[3]  C. Klein,et al.  Denitrification in the top soil of managed grasslands in The Netherlands in relation to soil type and fertilizer level , 1994, Plant and Soil.

[4]  Andrew P. Whitmore,et al.  Farming, fertilizers and the nitrate problem , 1991 .

[5]  K. Poppe,et al.  Landbouw, milieu en economie , 1993 .

[6]  M. Hefting,et al.  Nitrogen removal in buffer strips along a lowland stream in the Netherlands: a pilot study. , 1998 .

[7]  C. Olsthoorn,et al.  The anthropogenic nitrogen cycle in the Netherlands , 1998, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems.

[8]  C. Klein,et al.  Denitrification in grassland soils in the Netherlands in relation to irrigation, N-application rate, soil water content and soil temperature , 1996 .

[9]  J. J. Schröder,et al.  Nutrient surpluses on integrated arable farms , 1996 .

[10]  F. Berendse,et al.  Effects of Dominant Plant Species on Soils during Succession in Nutrient-poor Ecosystems , 1998 .

[11]  G. V. D. Eertwegh,et al.  Water- en nutriëntenhuishouding van het stroomgebied van de Hupselse Beek , 1999 .

[12]  H. Behrendt,et al.  Point and diffuse load of nutrients to the Baltic Sea by river basins of North East Germany (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) , 1998 .

[13]  C. D. de Klein,et al.  Denitrification and N2O emission from urine-affected grassland soil , 1994, Plant and Soil.

[14]  J. Verstraten,et al.  Nitrogen cycling in an acid forest ecosystem in the Netherlands under increased atmospheric nitrogen input , 1991 .

[15]  W. Bouten.  Soil water dynamics of the Solling spruce stand, calculated with the forhyd simulation package , 1995 .

[16]  I. Prentice,et al.  A general model for the light-use efficiency of primary production , 1996 .

[17]  H. Behrendt.  A comparison of different methods of source apportionment of nutrients to river basins , 1999 .

[18]  Leen Hordijk,et al.  Integrated assessment models as a basis for air pollution negotiations , 1995 .

[19]  Kevin Parris,et al.  Agricultural nutrient balances as agri-environmental indicators: an OECD perspective , 1998 .

[20]  J. Schnoor,et al.  Nitrogen fixation: Anthropogenic enhancement‐environmental response , 1995 .

[21]  N. Caraco,et al.  HUMAN IMPACT ON NITRATE EXPORT : AN ANALYSIS USING MAJOR WORLD RIVERS , 1999 .

[22]  M. L. Beusichem,et al.  Denitrification in the top and sub soil of grassland on peat soils , 1996, Plant and Soil.

[23]  S. Seitzinger,et al.  The impact of land use on N2O emissions from watersheds draining into the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean and European Seas , 1998 .

[24]  Application of a conceptual catchment scale nitrate transport model on two rural river basins , 1998 .

[25]  Kurt Stephenson,et al.  Cost Implications in Achieving Alternative Water Quality Targets , 1996 .

[26]  R. Conrad,et al.  Acetylene blockage technique leads to underestimation of denitrification rates in oxic soils due to scavenging of intermediate nitric oxide , 1997 .

[27]  H. Aarts,et al.  Resource management in a 'De Marke' dairy farming system , 2000 .

[28]  Efficient resource management in dairy farming on sandy soil , 1999 .

[29]  F. V. Luijn.  Nitrogen removal by denitrification in the sediments of a shallow lake , 1997 .

[30]  C. Kroeze,et al.  Closing the global N2O budget: A retrospective analysis 1500–1994 , 1999 .

[31]  Julio Mosquera,et al.  Two options to explain the ammonia gap in The Netherlands , 2001 .

[32]  M. H. Broeke.  Nitrate leaching from dairy farming on sandy soils : case studies for experimental farm De Marke , 2000 .

[33]  C.W.J. Roest,et al.  Nitrogen and phosphorus losses from agriculture into surface waters; the effects of policies and measures in the Netherlands , 1998 .

[34]  A. Hoogerkamp.  Accumulation of organic matter under grassland and its effects on grassland and on arable crops , 1973 .

[35]  M. Cannell,et al.  Radiation Interception and Productivity of Willow , 1987 .

[36]  D. Jenkinson,et al.  Soil organic matter and its dynamics. , 1988 .

[37]  P. Eriksson,et al.  An experimental study on effects of submersed macrophytes on nitrification and denitrification in ammonium‐rich aquatic systems , 1999 .

[38]  M. V. Eerdt,et al.  The monitoring of nitrogen surpluses from agriculture , 1998 .

[39]  L. M. Svendsen,et al.  Retention of nitrogen and phosphorus in a Danish lowland river system: implications for the export from the watershed , 1993, Hydrobiologia.

[40]  W. D. Vries,et al.  Literatuurstudie naar voorraden en verblijftijden van elementen in bosecosystemen , 1990 .

[41]  J. Hassink.  Organic matter dynamics and N mineralization in grassland soils. , 1995 .

[42]  R. Aerts.  Atmospheric nitrogen deposition affects potential denitrification and N2O emission from peat soils in the Netherlands , 1997 .

[43]  David Tilman,et al.  DYNAMICS OF SOIL NITROGEN AND CARBON ACCUMULATION FOR 61 YEARS AFTER AGRICULTURAL ABANDONMENT , 2000 .

[44]  Dennis P. Swaney,et al.  Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N & P fluxes for the drainages to the North Atlantic Ocean: Natural and human influences , 1996 .

[45]  L. M. Svendsen,et al.  Retention of nutrients in river basins , 1999, Aquatic Ecology.

[46]  F. Berendse.  Organic matter accumulation and nitrogen mineralization during secondary succession in heathland ecosystems. , 1990 .

[47]  C. Klein,et al.  Nitrogen losses due to denitrification from cattle slurry injected into grassland soil with and without a nitrification inhibitor , 1996, Plant and Soil.

[48]  B. Stewart,et al.  Assessment Methods for Soil Carbon , 2000 .

[49]  G. Drecht,et al.  Nitrogen monitoring in groundwater in the sandy regions of the Netherlands , 1998 .

[50]  Mnv.  Milieucompendium 1999. Het milieu in cijfers , 1999 .

[51]  S. Seitzinger.  Denitrification in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems: Ecological and geochemical significance , 1988 .

[52]  J. Kros,et al.  Uncertainties in the fate of nitrogen II: A quantitative assessment of the uncertainties in major nitrogen fluxes in the Netherlands , 2003, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems.

[53]  D. A. Oudendag,et al.  Focus on emission factors: a sensitivity analysis of ammonia emission modelling in the Netherlands , 1998 .

[54]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  The exchange of atmospheric ammonia with vegetated surfaces. II: Fertilized vegetation , 1993 .

[55]  J. Kuenen,et al.  Ecology of nitrification and denitrification , 1988 .

[56]  J. Schröder,et al.  Modelling the change in soil organic C and N and the mineralization of N from soil in response to applications of slurry manure , 1996, Plant and Soil.

[57]  B. Emmett,et al.  The fate of 15N-labelled nitrogen deposition in coniferous forest ecosystems , 1998 .

[58]  Erik Jeppesen,et al.  Changes in nitrogen retention in shallow eutrophic lakes following a decline in density of cyprinids , 1998 .

[59]  H. E. Andersen,et al.  Agricultural practices and diffuse nitrogen pollution in Denmark: empirical leaching and catchment models , 1999 .

[60]  G. Harris,et al.  Measurements of N2O fluxes from fertilized grassland using a fast response tunable diode laser spectrometer , 1994 .

[61]  C.W.J. Roest,et al.  Leaching of nitrate from agriculture to groundwater: the effect of policies and measures in the Netherlands , 1998 .

[62]  J. Neeteson.  Assessment of fertilizer nitrogen requirement of potatoes and sugar beet , 1989 .

[63]  A. Boxman,et al.  The fate of15N enriched throughfall in two coniferous forest stands at different nitrogen deposition levels , 1996 .

[64]  S. Seitzinger,et al.  Global distribution of nitrous oxide production and N inputs in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems , 1998 .

[65]  O. Oenema,et al.  Nitrous oxide production, its source and distribution in urine patches on grassland on peat soil , 1997, Plant and Soil.

[66]  C. D. de Kovel,et al.  MODEL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF HISTORIC CO2 LEVELS AND NITROGEN INPUTS ON VEGETATION SUCCESSION , 1999 .

[67]  O. Oenema,et al.  Nitrogen loss from grassland on peat soils through nitrous oxide production , 2004, Plant and Soil.

[68]  B. Emmett,et al.  Impact of nitrogen deposition on nitrogen cycling in forests : a synthesis of NITREX data , 1998 .

[69]  van der Linden Ama,et al.  De kwaliteit van het grondwater in Nederland , 1989 .

[70]  J. L. Monteith,et al.  Validity of the correlation between intercepted radiation and biomass , 1994 .

[71]  F. Berendse,et al.  Soil organic matter accumulation and its implications for nitrogen mineralization and plant species composition during succession in coastal dune slacks , 1998, Plant Ecology.

[72]  D. J. Greenwood,et al.  APPARENT RECOVERY OF FERTILIZER N BY VEGETABLE CROPS , 1989 .

[73]  B. Faafeng,et al.  Retention of nitrogen in small streams artificially polluted with nitrate , 1993, Hydrobiologia.

[74]  Mnv.  Milieubalans 2002. Het Nederlandse milieu verklaard , 2002 .

[75]  R. Tol,et al.  Benefits of a Reallocation of Nitrate Emission Reductions in the Rhine River Basin , 1998 .

[76]  R. Aerts,et al.  PLANT‐MEDIATED CONTROLS ON NUTRIENT CYCLING IN TEMPERATE FENS AND BOGS , 1999 .

[77]  G. Ågren,et al.  Nitrogen saturation of terrestrial ecosystems. , 1988, Environmental pollution.

[78]  J. Duyzer.  Dry deposition of ammonia and ammonium aerosols over heathland , 1994 .

[79]  Mahg Plantaz.  Surface - atmosphere exchange of ammonia over grazed pasture , 1998 .

[80]  J. Aber,et al.  Nitrogen saturation in northern forest ecosystems , 1989 .

[81]  J. Duyzer,et al.  The dry deposition of ammonia onto a Douglas fir forest in the Netherlands , 1994 .

[82]  B. Fraters,et al.  Resultaten Meetprogramma Kwaliteit Bovenste Grondwater Landbouwbedrijven in het zandgebied (MKBGL-zand) 1992 - 1995 , 1997 .

[83]  G. Velthof,et al.  Seasonal variations in nitrous oxide losses from managed grasslands in The Netherlands , 1996, Plant and Soil.

[84]  H. Grinsven,et al.  Soil acidification and solute budgets for forested lysimeters in Nordrhein-Westfalen. , 1991 .

[85]  Richard F. Wright,et al.  Nitrogen leaching from European forests in relation to nitrogen deposition , 1995 .

[86]  K. V. D. Hoek,et al.  Nitrogen efficiency in global animal production , 1998 .

[87]  T. Vellinga,et al.  Sixty years of Dutch nitrogen fertiliser experiments, an overview of the effects of soil type, fertiliser input, management and of developments in time , 1999 .

[88]  A. Bouwman,et al.  A global high‐resolution emission inventory for ammonia , 1997 .

[89]  G. Velthof.  Nitrous oxide emission from intensively managed grasslands , 1997 .

[90]  C. Beier,et al.  A correlative evaluation of nitrogen cycling in the forest ecosystems of the EC projects NITREX and EXMAN , 1995 .

[91]  J. D. Vos.  Water flow and nutrient transport in a layered silt loam soil , 1997 .

[92]  W. Bouten,et al.  Anoxic microsites in Douglas fir litter , 1999 .

[93]  R. Aerts,et al.  The Impact of Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition on Vegetation Processes in Terrestrial, Non-Forest Ecosystems , 1999 .

[94]  J. Aber,et al.  Nitrogen cycling and nitrogen saturation in temperate forest ecosystems. , 1992, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[95]  B. Emmett,et al.  Nitrogen deposition makes a minor contribution to carbon sequestration in temperate forests , 1999, Nature.

[96]  M. Meybeck.  Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus transport by world rivers , 1982 .

[97]  N. Wrage,et al.  Role of nitrifier denitrification in the production of nitrous oxide , 2001 .