Are Two Modalities Better Than One When Learning from Online Reference Maps

This study focuses on the effects of map display and modality on learning geographical maps in a computer-based environment. Participants were randomly assigned to four versions of a computer program created by crossing two levels of map display (hypertext vs. rollover) with two levels of modality (audio vs. audio and text). Results showed that the modality factor affects recall and inference test performance of college students in map learning significantly. Purpose Technology has improved so much today, that it is easy to teach in ways that are both interactive and communicative. The Internet and the WWW have added a new dimension to teaching and learning. It not only integrates different mediums but also their design, development and implementation. With the paradigm shift from teaching to learning, mu ltimodality offers an excellent way for self-paced and exploratory learning more in tune with the constructivist methodology than the behaviorist methodology. According to Mayer (1997), meaningful learning “occurs when learners select relevant information from what is presented, organize the pieces of information into a coherent mental representation, and integrate the newly constructed representation with others”. Theoretical Framework Results from over forty studies have shown that geographic maps can be used as cognitive tools to increase the recall of related instructional text. The image of a map is an excellent mnemonic device to associate geographic locations contained in the map with related facts in the text (Kulhavy, Stock, & Kealy, 1993). Maps integrate both feature information and structure information which create an integrated image of the display (Verdi, Johnson, Stock, Kulhavy, and Ahern, 1997). This integration results in an economical unit that makes it easy for learners to switch their attention across an image while simultaneously processing information from a related text (Larkin and Simon, 1987). The feature-to-fact referential connections (Mayer and Anderson, 1992) create additional retrieval cues that learners can use to improve their recall of map and text information (Verdi, et al., 1997). Paivio's dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986) contends that the cognitive system functions with two symbolic systems that are distinct, yet referentially connected. The verbal system stores information generated through the processing of language while the nonverbal system stores information received during the processing of images. Conjoint retention (CR) theory, an extension of dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986) has been applied to map learning. According to CR theory, maps are stored spatially in the nonverbal system as intact units while text information is stored linearly in the verbal system. The presence of referential connections between these two separate memory stores can help in the study of geographical maps. Computer environments offer a far greater scope to make use of dual coding theory than print media. It offers far greater scope to use multimedia. Print maps are usually drawn on one page and the opposite page has the narrative. Sorting through the narrative to reference a particular location is not only time-consuming but also leads to extrinsic cognitive load. Extrinsic load can be brought down to a large extent by bringing in the contiguity factor. According to the contiguity principle, instructions in multimedia are more effective when words, pictures and audio are presented contiguously, rather than separately in time or space. The contiguity factor takes into account the severe limitations of the human processing system (Baddeley, 1986) which leads to cognitive load. In a computer environment it is possible to have feature-to-fact referential connections both in terms of temporal contiguity and spatial contiguity as well as an image of the map with or without an accompanying text and audio. Contiguity helps to bring cross-code referential links lowering the cognitive load and thus helping in better cognition of the