Making the case for improved structural design : tornado outbreaks of 2011

A total of 1,625 tornadoes occurred in the United States in 2011, resulting in economic losses that exceeded $25 billion. Two tornado outbreaks stand out because they caused more than half of those losses. The tornadoes that cut through Tuscaloosa, Alabama, on April 27 and Joplin, Missouri, on May 22 were responsible for a combined 223 fatalities and more than 13,000 damaged buildings in the two cities. Although the economic losses associated with tornado damage are well documented, the writers argue that the overall impact should encompass longer term, broader considerations such as the social dis- ruption and psychological effects that impact communities. This paper examines observations by tornado damage assessment teams led by the first author in these two medium-sized cities and suggests that the evolution of building codes and past approaches to construction have led to conditions that made this extent of damage possible. The authors outline a multidisci- plinary path forward that incorporates engineering research and social and economic studies into a new design paradigm leading to building code changes and social practices that will improve resistance and mitigate future losses at a community level from tornadoes.

[1]  Chris Letchford,et al.  Pressure Distribution on a Cubical Model in Tornado-Like Flow , 2003 .

[2]  Long Qiao,et al.  Validation of Finite-Element Analyses for Storm Shelters , 2006 .

[3]  E M Gilfoyle.  Leadership and management. , 1987, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[4]  Robert J. Trapp,et al.  The 12 May 2004 Harper, KS Tornado: Analysis of dow radar observations of the low level wind field , 2005 .

[5]  W. S. Lewellen,et al.  Tornado Vortex Theory , 2013 .

[6]  Reinhard Mechler,et al.  Natural disaster risk and cost-benefit analysis , 2003 .

[7]  Walker S. Ashley.  Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Tornado Fatalities in the United States: 1880–2005 , 2007 .

[8]  Andrew J. Graettinger,et al.  Building damage observations and ef classifications from the tuscaloosa, al and joplin, mo tornadoes , 2012 .

[9]  Julian J. Lee,et al.  Pressure measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado , 2004 .

[10]  Chris Letchford,et al.  Physical simulation of a single-celled tornado-like vortex, Part A: Flow field characterization , 2008 .

[11]  Irwin E. Redlener,et al.  Legacy of Katrina: The Impact of a Flawed Recovery on Vulnerable Children of the Gulf Coast , 2010 .

[12]  Edward Cohen,et al.  Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures , 1990 .

[13]  Chris Letchford,et al.  Comparison of pressure distribution on a cubical model in boundary layer and tornado-like flow fields , 2005 .

[14]  Partha P. Sarkar,et al.  Laboratory Simulation of Tornado and Microburst to assess Wind Loads on Buildings , 2006 .

[15]  Andrew J. Graettinger,et al.  Damage Study and Future Direction for Structural Design Following the Tuscaloosa Tornado of 2011 , 2011 .

[16]  Charles A. Doswell,et al.  Low-Level Winds in Tornadoes and Potential Catastrophic Tornado Impacts in Urban Areas , 2008 .

[17]  M. E. Teske,et al.  WIND AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN A TORNADO , 1980 .

[18]  Mohan Munasinghe,et al.  Disaster prevention for sustainable development : economic and policy issues , 1995 .

[19]  Tetsuya Theodore. Fujita,et al.  "Proposed Characterization of Tornadoes and Hurricanes by Area and Intensity," by Fujita, T. Theodore; SMRP Research Paper Number 91, 1970. , 1970 .

[20]  Hui Hu,et al.  Characterization of the wind loads and flow fields around a gable-roof building model in tornado-like winds , 2011 .

[21]  Lennart Bengtsson,et al.  Intense Atmospheric Vortices , 1982 .

[22]  Alcira Kreimer,et al.  Building safer cities : the future of disaster risk , 2003 .

[23]  Partha P. Sarkar,et al.  Tornado-induced wind loads on a low-rise building , 2010 .

[24]  Fred L. Haan,et al.  Transient Loads on Buildings in Microburst and Tornado Winds , 2006 .

[25]  Robert J. Trapp,et al.  An analysis of the axisymmetric three‐dimensional low level wind field in a tornado using mobile radar observations , 2008 .

[26]  Song-You Hong,et al.  Physical Parameterization in Next-Generation NWP Models , 2005 .

[27]  James R. McDonald,et al.  Tornado: an engineering-oriented perspective , 1977 .

[28]  L. Peek,et al.  Poverty and Disasters in the United States: A Review of Recent Sociological Findings , 2004 .

[29]  Julius Baier.  Wind Pressures in the St. Louis Tornado , 1897 .

[30]  William L. Coulbourne.  Wind Speed Analysis of Greensburg, KS Tornado , 2008 .

[31]  Forrest J. Masters,et al.  Post 2004 Hurricane Field Survey -- An Evaluation of the Relative Performance of the Standard Building Code and the Florida Building Code , 2006 .

[32]  Christopher D. Karstens,et al.  Near-Ground Pressure and Wind Measurements in Tornadoes* , 2010 .

[33]  Bogusz Bienkiewicz.  Lessons Learned from Structural Damage Investigations — A Case Study of 2003 Missouri-Kansas Tornadoes , 2008 .

[34]  Rakesh Gupta,et al.  Dual Objective Design Philosophy for Tornado Engineering , 2012 .

[35]  Chris Letchford,et al.  Physical Simulation of a Single-Celled Tornado-Like Vortex, Part B: Wind Loading on a Cubical Model , 2008 .

[36]  Hailei Wang,et al.  Fluid-structure interaction of a tornado-like vortex with low-rise structures , 2002 .

[37]  Joshua Wurman,et al.  The Three-Dimensional Axisymmetric Wind Field Structure of the Spencer, South Dakota, 1998 Tornado , 2010 .