Heat budget of snow-covered sea ice at North Pole 4

The Russian drifting station North Pole 4 (NP-4) was within 5° latitude of the North Pole from April 1956 to April 1957. We use a wide-ranging set of snow and meteorological data collected at 3-hourly intervals on NP-4 during this period to investigate energy and mass transfer in the snow, sea ice, and atmospheric surface layer in the central Arctic. SNTHERM, a one-dimensional energy and mass balance model, synthesizes these diverse NP-4 data and thereby yields energetically consistent time series of the components of the surface heat budget. To parameterize the sensible heat flux during extremely stable stratification, we replace the usual log-linear stability function with the “Dutch” formulation and introduce a windless coefficient in the bulk parameterization. This coefficient provides sensible heat transfer at the surface, even when the mean wind speed is near zero, and thereby prevents the surface temperature from falling to unrealistically low values, a common modeling problem when the stratification is very stable. Several other modifications to SNTHERM introduce procedures for creating a realistic snowpack that has continuously variable density and is subject to erosion and wind packing. The NP-4 data provide for two distinct simulations: one on 2-year ice and one on multiyear ice. We validate our modeling by comparing simulated and observed temperatures at various depths in the snow and sea ice. Simulations for both sites show the same tendencies. During the summer, the shortwave radiation is the main term in the surface heat budget. Shortwave radiation also penetrates into the snow and causes a subsurface temperature maximum that both the data and the model capture. During the winter, the net longwave balance is the main term in the surface heat budget. The snow and sea ice cool in response to longwave losses, but the flux of sensible heat from the air to the surface mitigates these losses and is thus nearly a mirror image of the emitted longwave flux.