Dietary Exposure Assessment of European Population to Mycotoxins

Abstract In the area of food, risk assessment consists of four elements: hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. Exposure assessment and the other elements entail different sources of uncertainty and variability that can affect the reliability of the final output. Among the most relevant tools for exposure assessment studies, deterministic versus probabilistic, total diet versus duplicate studies, and food surveys versus the use of biomarkers in biological fluids constitute approaches most commonly used by researchers. In this chapter, the data available in the literature on assessment of the exposure of the European population to mycotoxins are shown. They reveal that specific groups such as infants and children are the most exposed because of an unfavorable ratio of intake to body weight. In addition, main pros and cons related to occurrence and consumption data are presented with particular emphasis on sampling error and the improper use or incomplete nature of both types of data.

[1]  R. Krska,et al.  Bio-monitoring of mycotoxin exposure in Cameroon using a urinary multi-biomarker approach. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[2]  A. Aitio,et al.  Exposure and effect monitoring: a critical appraisal of their practical application. , 1999, Toxicology letters.

[3]  S. Saeger,et al.  Scientific Opinion on the risks for public and animal health related to the presence of citrinin in food and feed , 2012 .

[4]  D. Vose.  Risk Analysis: A Quantitative Guide , 2000 .

[5]  P. Scott.  Biomarkers of human exposure to ochratoxin A , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[6]  S. Tannenbaum,et al.  Serum albumin adducts in the molecular epidemiology of aflatoxin carcinogenesis: correlation with aflatoxin B1 intake and urinary excretion of aflatoxin M1. , 1988, Carcinogenesis.

[7]  J. Mbabazi,et al.  Principles and Methods for the Risk Assessment of Chemicals in Food , 2011 .

[8]  S R Tannenbaum,et al.  Isolation and characterization of the major serum albumin adduct formed by aflatoxin B1 in vivo in rats. , 1987, Carcinogenesis.

[9]  I. Thorup,et al.  Preliminary evaluation of fumonisins by the Nordic countries and occurrence of fumonisins (FB1 and FB2) in corn-based foods on the Danish market , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[10]  R. Krska,et al.  Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[11]  C. Wild,et al.  Development of a urinary biomarker of human exposure to deoxynivalenol. , 2003, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[12]  F. Jonsyn-Ellis.  Aflatoxins and ochratoxins in serum samples of school children , 2007 .

[13]  G. Sahin,et al.  Ochratoxin A: Is it present in human breast milk samples obtained mothers from Ankara, Turkey , 2009 .

[14]  G. Font,et al.  Exposure estimates to Fusarium mycotoxins through cereals intake. , 2013, Chemosphere.

[15]  Ord,et al.  Guidelines for Exposure Assessment , 2014 .

[16]  C. Wild,et al.  Fumonisin B1 as a Urinary Biomarker of Exposure in a Maize Intervention Study Among South African Subsistence Farmers , 2011, Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention.

[17]  C. Wild,et al.  Dietary wheat reduction decreases the level of urinary deoxynivalenol in UK adults , 2008, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[18]  C. Lino,et al.  Levels of ochratoxin A in serum from urban and rural Portuguese populations and estimation of exposure degree. , 2008, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[19]  C. Brera,et al.  Evaluation of ochratoxin A level in human milk in Italy. , 1995, Food additives and contaminants.

[20]  C. Lino,et al.  Ochratoxin A in the morning and afternoon portions of urine from Coimbra and Valencian populations. , 2008, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[21]  Alessia Pia Scarlato,et al.  Dietary exposure to fumonisins and evaluation of nutrient intake in a group of adult celiac patients on a gluten-free diet. , 2012, Molecular nutrition & food research.

[22]  K. Peltonen,et al.  Towards a harmonised Total Diet Study approach: A guidance document , 2011 .

[23]  J Kleiner,et al.  Assessment of intake from the diet. , 2002, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[24]  D.P.K.H. Pereboom-de Fauw,et al.  Determination of mean daily intakes of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes and fumonisins in 24-hour diets of children in the Netherlands. , 2009 .

[25]  E. Funkhouser,et al.  Association between birth outcomes and aflatoxin B1 biomarker blood levels in pregnant women in Kumasi, Ghana , 2010, Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH.

[26]  Jeffrey D Wolt,et al.  Fumonisin B(1) and implications in nursery swine productivity: a quantitative exposure assessment. , 2010, Journal of animal science.

[27]  C. Mezigh,et al.  HPLC Determination of Ochratoxin A in a Low Volume of Human Blood Serum , 2008 .

[28]  F. Valitutti,et al.  Exposure assessment to mycotoxins in gluten-free diet for celiac patients. , 2014, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[29]  C. Lino,et al.  Human ochratoxin A biomarkers—From exposure to effect , 2011, Critical reviews in toxicology.

[30]  M. Černá,et al.  Monitoring of mycotoxin biomarkers in the Czech Republic , 2005, Mycotoxin Research.

[31]  R. Krska,et al.  Mycotoxin exposure in rural residents in northern Nigeria: a pilot study using multi-urinary biomarkers. , 2014, Environment international.

[32]  Veronica M T Lattanzio,et al.  Simultaneous LC–MS/MS determination of aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, de-epoxydeoxynivalenol, α and β-zearalenols and fumonisin B1 in urine as a multi-biomarker method to assess exposure to mycotoxins , 2011, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[33]  J. Groopman,et al.  Molecular dosimetry of urinary aflatoxin-DNA adducts in people living in Guangxi Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. , 1992, Cancer research.

[34]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins in Catalonia (Spain) and an exposure assessment of specific population groups , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[35]  C. Wild,et al.  Mycotoxins and Human Disease: a Largely Ignored Global Health Issue , 2022 .

[36]  J. Lambe,et al.  The use of food consumption data in assessments of exposure to food chemicals including the application of probabilistic modelling , 2002, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society.

[37]  M. Carvajal.  Aflatoxin-DNA Adducts as Biomarkers of Cancer: Nature, Formation, Kinds of AF-DNA Adducts, Methodology, Effects, and Control , 2008 .

[38]  H Boeing,et al.  The contribution of epidemiology. , 2002, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[39]  G. Shephard,et al.  Biomarkers of exposure to fumonisin mycotoxins: A review , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[40]  Í. Navarro-Blasco,et al.  Aflatoxin levels and exposure assessment of Spanish infant cereals , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[41]  C. Wild,et al.  Association between Tortilla Consumption and Human Urinary Fumonisin B1 Levels in a Mexican Population , 2008, Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention.

[42]  A. Prentice,et al.  Modification of immune function through exposure to dietary aflatoxin in Gambian children. , 2003, Environmental health perspectives.

[43]  K. Jahng,et al.  Quantitative determination of mycotoxins in urine by LC-MS/MS , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[44]  S. Viegas,et al.  Occupational Exposure to Aflatoxin B1 in Swine Production and Possible Contamination Sources , 2013, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[45]  H. Pakkala,et al.  Towards harmonized data interchange in food consumption data , 2014, Comput. Stand. Interfaces.

[46]  J. Leblanc,et al.  Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment in the second French total diet study. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[47]  H. Hudeckova,et al.  Results of the first studies of occurence of ochratoxin A in human milk in Slovakia. , 2008, Bratislavske lekarske listy.

[48]  M. Blaszkewicz,et al.  Simultaneous analysis of ochratoxin A and its major metabolite ochratoxin alpha in plasma and urine for an advanced biomonitoring of the mycotoxin. , 2010, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[49]  E. Herman,et al.  Food contaminants : mycotoxins and food allergens , 2008 .

[50]  A M Lammerding,et al.  Hazard identification and exposure assessment for microbial food safety risk assessment. , 2000, International journal of food microbiology.

[51]  P. Markaki,et al.  Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in breakfast cereals from athens market: Occurrence and risk assessment , 2009 .

[52]  A. Salomonsson,et al.  Dietary intake of some important mycotoxins by the Swedish population , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[53]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Mycotoxins: occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[54]  Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in a human milk bank in the city of São Paulo, Brazil , 2005 .

[55]  J. Leblanc,et al.  Estimated dietary exposure to principal food mycotoxins from The First French Total Diet Study , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[56]  W. Ling,et al.  Fecal and urinary excretion of aflatoxin B1 metabolites (AFQ1, AFM1 and AFB‐N7‐guanine) in young Chinese males , 2005, International journal of cancer.

[57]  Jean-Pierre Gauchi,et al.  Quantitative Assessment of Exposure to the Mycotoxin Ochratoxin A in Food , 2002, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[58]  G. Ridha,et al.  Estimation of Ochratoxin A in human blood of healthy Tunisian population. , 2010, Experimental and toxicologic pathology : official journal of the Gesellschaft fur Toxikologische Pathologie.

[59]  B. D. Santis,et al.  Ochratoxin A in cocoa and chocolate products from the Italian market: Occurrence and exposure assessment , 2011 .

[60]  E. Creppy,et al.  Prevention of nephrotoxicity of ochratoxin A, a food contaminant. , 1995, Toxicology letters.

[61]  J. Fisher,et al.  Determinants of urinary deoxynivalenol and de-epoxy deoxynivalenol in male farmers from Normandy, France. , 2010, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[62]  F. Chu,et al.  Correlation of dietary aflatoxin B1 levels with excretion of aflatoxin M1 in human urine. , 1987, Cancer research.

[63]  H. Whittle,et al.  Molecular dosimetry of aflatoxin-N7-guanine in human urine obtained in The Gambia, West Africa. , 1992, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[64]  J. Groopman,et al.  Molecular biomarkers for aflatoxins and their application to human cancer prevention. , 1994, Cancer research.

[65]  R. Schothorst,et al.  Report from SCOOP task 3.2.10 "collection of occurrence data of Fusarium toxins in food and assessment of dietary intake by the population of EU member states". Subtask: trichothecenes. , 2004, Toxicology letters.

[66]  J Ireland,et al.  Selection of a food classification system and a food composition database for future food consumption surveys , 2002, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

[67]  S. Ward,et al.  Exposure assessment of mycotoxins in dairy milk , 2009 .

[68]  Q. Cai,et al.  Evaluation of fumonisin biomarkers in a cross-sectional study with two high-risk populations in China , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[69]  E. M. Gloria,et al.  Occurrence of AFM1 in urine samples of a Brazilian population and association with food consumption , 2010 .

[70]  C. Brera,et al.  25 – Mycotoxins: detection and control , 2004 .

[71]  Y. Leong,et al.  Exposure measurement of aflatoxins and aflatoxin metabolites in human body fluids. A short review , 2012, Mycotoxin Research.

[72]  B. Fazekas,et al.  Ochratoxin a content of urine samples of healthy humans in Hungary. , 2005, Acta veterinaria Hungarica.

[73]  K. Hult,et al.  Ochratoxin A in cow's milk and in human milk with corresponding human blood samples. , 1993, Journal of AOAC International.

[74]  D. Helsel.  Nondetects and data analysis : statistics for censored environmental data , 2005 .

[75]  Marja-Leena Ovaskainen,et al.  Harmonisation of recipe calculation procedures in European food composition databases. , 2009 .

[76]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Exposure assessment to ochratoxin A in Catalonia (Spain) based on the consumption of cereals, nuts, coffee, wine, and beer , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[77]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence of zearalenone, an oestrogenic mycotoxin, in Catalonia (Spain) and exposure assessment. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[78]  L. Jacxsens,et al.  Human exposure to mycotoxins and their masked forms through cereal-based foods in Belgium. , 2013, Toxicology letters.

[79]  A. Visconti,et al.  Rapid method for the determination of ochratoxin A in urine by immunoaffinity column clean-up and high-performance liquid chromatography , 2004, Mycopathologia.

[80]  J. Cravedi,et al.  Scientific Opinion on Ergot alkaloids in food and feed , 2012 .

[81]  L. Maccarini,et al.  Evaluation of xenobiotics in human milk and ingestion by the newborn , 2004, European journal of nutrition.

[82]  R. Krska,et al.  Comparison of single and multi-analyte methods based on LC-MS/MS for mycotoxin biomarker determination in human urine , 2013 .

[83]  A. Falcão,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 in marketed milk in Portugal: Assessment of human and animal exposure , 2013 .

[84]  Dennis R Helsel,et al.  Fabricating data: how substituting values for nondetects can ruin results, and what can be done about it. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[85]  Í. Navarro-Blasco,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 in Spanish infant formulae: occurrence and dietary intake regarding type, protein-base and physical state , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[86]  Joint Fao,et al.  Codex Alimentarius Commission procedural manual , 1968 .

[87]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Exposure assessment of T2 and HT2 toxins in Catalonia (Spain). , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[88]  J. Timbrell,et al.  Biomarkers in Toxicology , 1998, Toxicology.

[89]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Quantitative dietary exposure assessment of the Catalonian population (Spain) to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol , 2011, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[90]  M J Gibney,et al.  Assessment of food intake input distributions for use in probabilistic exposure assessments of food additives , 2003, Food additives and contaminants.

[91]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins in Catalonia (Spain). , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[92]  J. Gilbert,et al.  Assessment of dietary exposure to ochratoxin A in the UK using a duplicate diet approach and analysis of urine and plasma samples , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.