The Future of Small Farms

Summary Interest in agriculture for growth and poverty reduction reawakened in the early 2000s made all the keener by the sudden rise in cereals prices on world markets in 2007-08. But is it still possible to drive agricultural growth through small farms, as happened in the green revolution? Whether small farms have a future was debated at a workshop held in Wye, United Kingdom, in June 2005. It concluded that small farm development is not just desirable for poverty reduction, but also feasible, even in changing circumstances and particularly those of more concentrated supply chains with more demanding buyers. That said, while much that needs to be done is straightforward, such as provision of public goods, fostering the institutional innovations to allow small farmers to deal with the emerging supply chains will require patient work, tailored to specific circumstances. The future of all smallholders may well not lie in farming, but the measures to stimulate the rural nonfarm economy and provide jobs for those leaving farming--a favorable rural investment climate, provision of public goods, institutional development--are largely the same as those for agricultural development as well.

[1]  S. Franzel.  Socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption potential of improved tree fallows in Africa , 1999, Agroforestry Systems.

[2]  C. Timmer.  Agriculture and economic development , 2002 .

[3]  S. Resnick,et al.  A Model of an Agrarian Economy with Nonagricultural Activities , 1969 .

[4]  J. Stoorvogel,et al.  Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa: 1983-2000. , 1990 .

[5]  Mark R. Rosenzweig,et al.  How infrastructure and financial institutions affect agricultural output and investment in India , 1989 .

[6]  Patrick Guillaumont.  Macro vulnerability in low income countries and aid responses , 2011 .

[7]  A. Hirschman,et al.  The strategy of economic development , 1959 .

[8]  D. Rondinelli.  Market Towns and Agriculture in Africa: The Role of Small Urban Centres in Economic Development , 1988 .

[9]  David L. Dollar,et al.  Growth is Good for the Poor , 2001 .

[10]  N. McCarthy,et al.  Managing resources in erratic environments: an analysis of pastoralist systems in Ethiopia, Niger, and Burkina Faso , 2004 .

[11]  A. Wood,et al.  North-South Trade, Employment and Inequality: Changing Fortunes in a Skill-Driven World , 1994 .

[12]  A. Verhagen,et al.  A land quality indicator for sustainable land management: the yield gap , 1999 .

[13]  D. Byerlee,et al.  Technical Change, Labor Use, and Small Farmer Development: Evidence from Sierra Leone , 1976 .

[14]  S. Gupta,et al.  The Fiscal Dimensions of Adjustment in Low-Income Countries , 1992 .

[15]  R. Coase.  The Nature of the Firm , 1937 .

[16]  Peter B. R. Hazell,et al.  The Green Revolution Reconsidered: The Impact of High-Yielding Rice Varieties in South India , 1991 .

[17]  O. Williamson.  Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations , 1979, The Journal of Law and Economics.

[18]  Carl K. Eicher,et al.  Foreign Aid And The African Farmer , 2004 .

[19]  Linxiu Zhang,et al.  GROWTH AND POVERTY IN RURAL CHINA: THE ROLE OF PUBLIC INVESTMENTS , 2000 .

[20]  J. Strauss,et al.  Effects of Agricultural Commercialization on Food Crop Input Use and Productivity in Kenya , 1999 .

[21]  D. Bryceson.  Deagrarianization and Rural Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sectoral Perspective , 1996 .

[22]  P. Ngau,et al.  Rural‐Urban Relations, Household Income Diversification and Agricultural Productivity , 1991 .

[23]  T. Yamano,et al.  Interlinked credit and farm intensification: evidence from Kenya / доклад на 25 конференции IAAE, Reshaping Agriculture’s Contribution to Society, International Convention Centre, Durban, South Africa, 16-23 August 2003 , 2004 .

[24]  Tushaar Shah,et al.  Pedaling out of poverty: social impact of a manual irrigation technology in South Asia , 2000 .

[25]  E. Gabre-Madhin,et al.  Reforming Agricultural Markets in Africa , 2002 .

[26]  S. Scherr.  A downward spiral? Research evidence on the relationship between poverty and natural resource degradation. , 2000 .

[27]  Richard Sabot,et al.  Inequality and Growth Reconsidered: Lessons from East Asia , 1995 .

[28]  A. Deolalikar,et al.  Health and nutrition , 1988 .

[29]  P. Hazell.  Rural - urban growth linkages in India , 1990 .

[30]  R. Ruben,et al.  Land markets, risk and distress sales in Nicaragua: the impact of income shocks on rural differentiation. , 2003 .

[31]  Philip G. Pardey,et al.  Slow magic: agricultural R&D a century after Mendel. , 2001 .

[32]  S. Vosti,et al.  Issues in the analysis of the effects of policy on conservation and productivity at the household level in developing countries , 1992 .

[33]  David Hulme,et al.  Chronic Poverty and Remote Rural Areas , 2002 .

[34]  D. Jamison.  Farmer Education and Farm Efficiency , 1982 .

[35]  G. Huylenbroeck,et al.  The rise of supermarkets and changing expenditure patterns of poor rural households case study in the Transkei area, South Africa , 2005 .

[36]  Valerie A. Kelly,et al.  Agricultural growth linkages in Sub-Saharan Africa , 1998 .

[37]  M. Lipton,et al.  REDUCING INEQUALITY AND POVERTY DURING LIBERALISATION IN CHINA: RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIENCES AND POLICY OPTIONS , 2007 .

[38]  Robert E. Evenson,et al.  Induced Innovation: Technology, Institutions, and Development , 1978 .

[39]  C. Timmer.  The agricultural transformation , 1986 .

[40]  J. Hammer,et al.  Modeling Agricultural Growth Multipliers , 1991 .

[41]  G. Grossman,et al.  Innovation and growth in the global economy , 1993 .

[42]  Sudharshan Canagarajah,et al.  Non-farm income, gender, and inequality: evidence from rural Ghana and Uganda , 2001 .

[43]  C. Bell,et al.  Project evaluation in regional perspective : a study of an irrigation project in northwest Malaysia , 1983 .

[44]  Travis J. Lybbert,et al.  Stochastic Wealth Dynamics and Risk Management Among a Poor Population , 2002 .

[45]  T. Reardon,et al.  The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities for Development , 2002 .

[46]  J. Piesse,et al.  Sector-Level Efficiency and Productivity in Hungarian Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Industries, 1985–1991 , 1997 .

[47]  R. H. Holton.  Marketing Structure and Economic Development , 1953 .

[48]  Lawrence Busch,et al.  GLOBAL CHANGE IN AGRIFOOD GRADES AND STANDARDS: AGRIBUSINESS STRATEGIC RESPONSES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES , 1999 .

[49]  Timothy Besley,et al.  How Do Market Failures Justify Interventions in Rural Credit Markets , 1992 .

[50]  P. Krugman.  Increasing Returns and Economic Geography , 1991 .

[51]  W. Adger,et al.  Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change , 2003 .

[52]  P. Hazell,et al.  Agricultural technology and farm-nonfarm growth linkages , 1989 .

[53]  E. G. Dunn,et al.  Land Tenure, Farm Size, and Rural Market Participation in Developing Countries: The Case of the Tunisian Olive Sector , 1998, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[54]  A. Kochar.  Explaining Household Vulnerability to Idiosyncratic Income Shocks , 1995 .

[55]  D. Rondinelli.  Towns and small cities in developing countries. , 1983 .

[56]  R. Mearns,et al.  The changing nature of conflict and famine vulnerability: the case of livestock raiding in Turkana District, Kenya. , 1998, Disasters.

[57]  S. Gillespie.  Potential impact of AIDS on farming systems: A case study from Rwanda☆ , 1989 .

[58]  R. Kaplinsky,et al.  A handbook for value chain research , 2002 .

[59]  Barrington. Moore,et al.  Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World , 1967 .

[60]  Martin Ravallion,et al.  How important to India's poor is the sectoral composition of economic growth? , 1996 .

[61]  Bernard Vanlauwe,et al.  Exploring diversity in soil fertility management of smallholder farms in western Kenya I. Heterogeneity at region and farm scale , 2005 .

[62]  J. Edward Taylor,et al.  Effects of Non-Farm Employment on Rural Income Inequality in Developing Countries: an Investment Perspective , 2008 .

[63]  A. Ali.  Livelihood and food security in rural Bangladesh- the role of social capital , 2005 .

[64]  T. Reardon,et al.  Transformation of markets for agricultural output in developing countries since 1950: How has thinking changed? , 2007 .

[65]  Patrick Webb,et al.  The dynamics of livelihood diversification in post-famine Ethiopia , 2001 .

[66]  Frank Ellis,et al.  Livelihoods and rural poverty reduction in Uganda , 2000 .

[67]  Polly Hill.  Dry grain farming families : Hausaland (Nigeria) and Karnataka (India) compared , 1982 .

[68]  R. Ruben,et al.  The Impact of Climate Change on Drylands, with a Focus on West Africa , 2001 .

[69]  Steven M. Bellovin,et al.  Unconventional Wisdom , 2006, IEEE Security & Privacy Magazine.

[70]  D. Jorgenson.  The Development of a Dual Economy , 1961 .

[71]  E. Thorbecke,et al.  District-level economic linkages in Kenya: Evidence based on a small regional social accounting matrix , 1992 .

[72]  Huib Hengsdijk,et al.  Modeling the effect of three soil and water conservation practices in Tigray, Ethiopia , 2005 .

[73]  Bruce F. Johnston,et al.  Agriculture and Structural Transformation : Economic Strategies in Late-Developing Countries , 1975 .

[74]  P. Harvey.  HIV/AIDS and humanitarian action. , 2005, Food and nutrition bulletin.

[75]  Ruerd Ruben,et al.  Rural Diversity and heterogeneity in less-favoured areas: the quest for policy targeting , 2004 .

[76]  J. Lanjouw,et al.  The rural non-farm sector: issues and evidence from developing countries , 2001 .

[77]  A. Janvry,et al.  Quantitative development policy analysis , 1994 .

[78]  T. Jayne,et al.  Staple Food Consumption Patterns in Urban Kenya: Trends and Policy Implications , 2005 .

[79]  H. P. Binswanger,et al.  Chapter 42 Power, distortions, revolt and reform in agricultural land relations , 1993 .

[80]  M. Chen.  Beyond credit: a subsector approach to promoting women's enterprises. , 1995 .

[81]  S. Franzel,et al.  Improved fallows in Eastern Zambia: history, farmer practice and impacts , 2005 .

[82]  Marcel Fafchamps,et al.  Market Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa: Theory and Evidence , 2004 .

[83]  Leonardo R. Corral,et al.  Rural Nonfarm Incomes in Nicaragua , 2001 .

[84]  F. Ellis,et al.  Livelihoods Research Findings and Agriculture‐led Growth , 2005 .

[85]  Mary Tiffen,et al.  Transition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Agriculture, Urbanization and Income Growth , 2003 .

[86]  Laurence Smith,et al.  INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMIC POLICIES FOR PRO-POOR AGRICULTURAL GROWTH , 2004 .

[87]  F. Stewart,et al.  Linkages in Developing Economies: A Philippine Study , 1990 .

[88]  D. Clay,et al.  Size of Farm or Size of Family: Which Comes First? , 1992 .

[89]  J. Swinnen,et al.  The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development , 2004 .

[90]  T. Jayne,et al.  Is the Glass Half-Empty or Half Full? An Analysis of Agricultural Production Trends in Zambia , 2000 .

[91]  Paul Glewwe,et al.  Are some groups more vulnerable to macroeconomic shocks than others , 1998 .

[92]  S. W. Omamo.  Transport Costs and Smallholder Cropping Choices: An Application to Siaya District, Kenya , 1998 .

[93]  S. Haggblade,et al.  A subsector approach to small enterprise promotion and research , 1992 .

[94]  John W. Mellor,et al.  The New Economics Of Growth , 1976 .

[95]  M. Boehlje.  Structural Changes in the Agricultural Industries: How Do We Measure, Analyze and Understand Them? , 1999 .

[96]  T. Reardon,et al.  Rural Nonfarm Employment and Incomes in Chile , 2001 .

[97]  M. Carter,et al.  Can land market reform mitigate the exclusionary aspects of rapid agro-export growth? , 1993 .

[98]  A. Janvry,et al.  World development report 2008 : agriculture for development , 2008 .

[99]  E. Gundlach,et al.  Education Is Good for the Poor: A Note on Dollar and Kraay (2001)* , 2001 .

[100]  D. Bryceson.  African Rural Labour, Income Diversification and Livelihood Approaches: A Long-term Development Perspective* , 1999 .

[101]  New seeds and poor people , 1989 .

[102]  Mukesh Eswaran,et al.  A Theory of Contractual Structure in Agriculture , 1985 .

[103]  A. Whiteside,et al.  New variant famine: AIDS and food crisis in southern Africa , 2003, The Lancet.

[104]  T. Reardon,et al.  Links Between Nonfarm Income and Farm Investment in African Households: Adding the Capital Market Perspective , 1994 .

[105]  I. Singh,et al.  The Great Ascent: The Rural Poor in South Asia , 1991 .

[106]  Ziad Badr.  African development indicators 2001 , 2001 .

[107]  William E. Foster,et al.  Beyond the City: The Rural Contribution to Development , 2005 .

[108]  E. Gabre-Madhin,et al.  Successes in African agriculture , 2003 .

[109]  D. Bryceson,et al.  The Scramble in Africa: Reorienting Rural Livelihoods , 2002 .

[110]  Tim Dyson,et al.  Twenty-First Century India: Population, Economy, Human Development, and the Environment , 2005 .

[111]  C. Granger.  Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods , 1969 .

[112]  S. Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Development and diversification of rural industries in Asia , 1985 .

[113]  T. Yamano,et al.  Measuring the impacts of working-age adult mortality on small-scale farm households in Kenya / доклад на 25 конференции IAAE, Reshaping Agriculture’s Contribution to Society, International Convention Centre, Durban, South Africa, 16-23 August 2003 , 2003 .

[114]  W. Cline,et al.  Agrarian Structure and Productivity in Developing Countries , 1979 .

[115]  Julio A. Berdegué,et al.  Rural Nonfarm Employment and Incomes in Latin America: Overview and Policy Implications , 2001 .

[116]  Dominique P. van de Walle,et al.  Sources of Ethnic Inequality in Vietnam , 1999 .

[117]  A. Coale,et al.  The demographic transition. , 1984, Pakistan development review.

[118]  P. Lanjouw.  Rural Nonagricultural Employment and Poverty in Ecuador , 1999, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[119]  Christopher Udry,et al.  Risk and Insurance in a Rural Credit Market: An Empirical Investigation in Northern Nigeria , 1994 .

[120]  O. Williamson,et al.  The mechanisms of governance , 1996 .

[121]  P. Lanjouw.  Nonfarm Employment and Poverty in Rural El Salvador , 2001 .

[122]  H. Breman.  Opportunities and Constraints for Sustainable Development in Semi-Arid Africa , 1995 .

[123]  M. M. van den Berg.  Off-farm income, risk, and agricultural production: a case study of smallholders in India's semi-arid tropics , 2001 .

[124]  A. Bigsten,et al.  Growth, Income Distribution, and Poverty: A Review , 2001 .

[125]  J. Taylor,et al.  International Migration: Prospects and Policies in a Global Market , 2004 .

[126]  Carl K. Eicher.  Flashback: Fifty Years of Donor Aid to African Agriculture , 2003 .

[127]  F. Ferreira,et al.  Rural Nonfarm Activities and Poverty in the Brazilian Northeast , 2001 .

[128]  W. Lewis.  Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour , 1954 .

[129]  J. Pender.  Development pathways for hillsides and highlands: some lessons from Central America and East Africa , 2004 .

[130]  M. Stocking,et al.  Applying the concept of agrodiversity to indigenous soil and water conservation practices in eastern Kenya , 1998 .

[131]  Junior R. Davis,et al.  The non-agricultural rural sector in Central and Eastern Europe , 2001 .

[132]  Paul Richards,et al.  Indigenous agricultural revolution : ecology and food production in West Africa , 1986 .

[133]  M. Ravallion.  Pro-Poor Growth: A Primer , 2004 .

[134]  Joachim von Braun,et al.  "Land grabbing" by foreign investors in developing countries: Risks and opportunities , 2009 .

[135]  J. Swinnen,et al.  Private Enforcement Capital and Contract Enforcement in Transition Economies , 2001 .

[136]  G. Kruseman,et al.  The impact of agrarian policies on sustainable landuse. , 1997 .

[137]  A. Röell,et al.  Rural growth linkages: household expenditure patterns in Malaysia and Nigeria , 1983 .

[138]  H. van Keulen,et al.  Agricultural development in the West African Sahelian region: a cure against land hunger? , 1990 .

[139]  H. van Keulen,et al.  The effect of temporal variation on inputs and outputs of future-oriented land use systems in West Africa , 2002 .

[140]  J. Farrington,et al.  Farmer participation in agricultural research : a review of concepts and practices , 1988 .

[141]  K. Basu,et al.  Land, Labour, and Rural Poverty: Essays in Development Economics. , 1986 .

[142]  O. Stark.  Motivations to Remit: Evidence from Botswana , 1985, Journal of Political Economy.

[143]  Carl K. Eicher,et al.  Rural Employment, Migration, and Economic Development: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Evidence from Africa. Africa Rural Employment Paper No. 1. , 1972 .

[144]  Alexander Schejtman.  Agroindustria y pequeña agricultura: experiencias y opciones de transformación , 1998 .

[145]  Prabhu Pingali,et al.  From Subsistence to Commercial Production Systems: The Transformation of Asian Agriculture , 1997 .

[146]  M. Ravallion,et al.  Farm productivity and rural poverty in India , 1998 .

[147]  T. Yamano,et al.  Working‐Age Adult Mortality and Primary School Attendance in Rural Kenya , 2005, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[148]  M. Ravallion.  Externalities in Rural Development: Evidence for China , 2002 .

[149]  M. Ravallion,et al.  Why Have Some Indian States Done Better than Others at Reducing Rural Poverty? , 1996 .

[150]  C. Barrett,et al.  The Rise of Supermarkets in Africa, Asia, and Latin America , 2003 .

[151]  C. Barrett,et al.  The economics of poverty traps and persistent poverty: An asset-based approach , 2006 .

[152]  D. Spencer.  Infrastructure and Technology Constraints to Agricultural Development in the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Africa , 1996 .

[153]  John A. Dixon,et al.  Farming Systems and Poverty IMPROVING FARMERS' LIVELIHOODS IN A CHANGING WORLD , 2001 .

[154]  Christopher B. Barrett,et al.  FOOD SECURITY AND FOOD ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS , 2001 .

[155]  P. Dorosh,et al.  Growth Linkages, Price Effects and Income Distribution in Sub-Saharan Africa , 2003 .

[156]  F. Ellis,et al.  Rural livelihoods and poverty reduction policies. , 2005 .

[157]  V. Ruttan.  United States development assistance policy: the domestic politics of foreign economic aid. , 1996 .

[158]  A. Janvry,et al.  World Poverty and the Role of Agricultural Technology: Direct and Indirect Effects , 2002 .

[159]  S. Maxwell,et al.  RETHINKING RURAL DEVELOPMENT , 2001 .

[160]  Andrew Dorward,et al.  Farm size and productivity in Malawian smallholder agriculture , 1999 .

[161]  Julian May,et al.  Poverty, livelihood and class in rural South Africa , 1997 .

[162]  A. Niehof.  The significance of diversification for rural livelihood systems , 2004 .

[163]  Philip G. Pardey,et al.  Investments in african agricultural research , 1997 .

[164]  P. Siegel,et al.  Identifying the drivers of sustainable rural growth and poverty reduction in Honduras , 2005 .

[165]  Amartya Sen,et al.  Poverty And Famines , 1981 .

[166]  S. Block.  Agriculture and economic growth in Ethiopia: growth multipliers from a four-sector simulation model , 1999 .

[167]  A. Janvry,et al.  Rural poverty in Latin America: Determinants and exit paths , 2000 .

[168]  Stefan Dercon,et al.  Risk, Crop Choice, and Savings: Evidence from Tanzania , 1996, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[169]  Z. Ahmed.  Effective costs of rural loans in Bangladesh , 1989 .

[170]  Mark R. Rosenzweig,et al.  Agricultural Productivity Growth, Rural Economic Diversity, and Economic Reforms: India, 1970–2000* , 2004, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[171]  J. E. Brons,et al.  Activity diversification in rural livelihoods : the role of farm supplementary income in Burkina Faso , 2005 .

[172]  Ann Dykman,et al.  One-Stop Shopping. , 1995 .

[173]  Christopher B. Barrett,et al.  Nonfarm Income Diversification and Household Livelihood Strategies in Rural Africa: Concepts, Dynamics and Policy Implications , 2001 .

[174]  Michael Collinson,et al.  A low cost approach to understanding small farmers , 1981 .

[175]  Bruce F. Johnston,et al.  The role of agriculture in economic development , 1961 .

[176]  M. Lipton,et al.  The family farm in a globalizing world: The role of crop science in alleviating poverty , 2005 .

[177]  Anne Booth,et al.  Labour absorption in agriculture , 1985 .

[178]  H. Oshima.  Levels and Trends of Farm Families' Nonagricultural Incomes at Different Stages of Monsoon Development , 1985 .

[179]  Jenifer Piesse,et al.  The Impact of Research Led Agricultural Productivity Growth on Poverty Reduction in Africa, Asia and Latin America , 2003 .

[180]  N. Heerink.  Soil Fertility Decline and Economic Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa , 2002 .

[181]  Andrew Dorward,et al.  Smallholder cash crop production under market liberalisation: a new institutional economics perspective. , 1998 .

[182]  R. Chambers,et al.  Rural Development: Putting the last first , 1983 .

[183]  N. Minot.  Generating Disaggregated Poverty Maps: An Application to Vietnam , 2000 .

[184]  John Hoddinott,et al.  Long-term consequences of early childhood malnutrition , 2006 .

[185]  Q. Wodon.  Microdeterminants of consumption, poverty, growth, and inequality in Bangladesh , 1999 .

[186]  Mark R. Rosenzweig,et al.  Behavioural and material determinants of production relations in agriculture , 1986 .

[187]  C. T. de Wit,et al.  Resource use efficiency in agriculture , 1992 .

[188]  R. Meinzen-Dick,et al.  Property rights, collective action and technologies for natural resource management: a conceptual framework , 2000 .

[189]  H. Varmus.  Harvard University Commencement Address , 1996 .

[190]  J. Stiglitz.  Markets, Market Failures, and Development , 1989 .

[191]  Dennis Anderson,et al.  Small industry in developing countries: A discussion of issues , 1982 .

[192]  T. Reardon,et al.  Central American supermarkets’ private standards of quality and safety in procurement of fresh fruits and vegetables , 2005 .

[193]  David N. Zurick,et al.  Rural transformation and the future of agricultural development policy in Asia , 1988 .

[194]  M. Drinkwater,et al.  The social and economic impact of HIV/AIDS on farming systems and livelihoods in rural Africa: Some experience and lessons from Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia , 1995 .

[195]  W. Diebold,et al.  Agricultural Price Policy for Developing Countries , 1988 .

[196]  Timothy J. Sturgeon,et al.  How Do We Define Value Chains and Production Networks , 2001 .

[197]  R. Netting.  Smallholders, Householders: Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture , 1994 .

[198]  H. Keulen,et al.  Risk management in crop production and fertilizer use with uncertain rainfall; how many eggs in which baskets , 1994 .

[199]  M. Loevinsohn,et al.  HIV / AIDS food security and rural livelihoods: understanding and responding. , 2003 .

[200]  P. Collier,et al.  Labour and Poverty in Kenya: 1900 - 1980 , 1986 .

[201]  H. P. Binswanger,et al.  What are the prospects for land reform , 1988 .

[202]  Prabhu Pingali,et al.  The World Food Economy in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges for International Co-Operation , 2003 .

[203]  A. Pacey,et al.  Farmer first: Farmer innovation and agricultural research , 1989 .

[204]  Ramón López.  Why Governments Should Stop Non-Social Subsidies: Measuring Their Consequences for Rural Latin America , 2005 .

[205]  T. Tomich,et al.  Transforming Agrarian Economies: Opportunities Seized, Opportunities Missed , 1995 .

[206]  X. Irz,et al.  Agricultural Productivity Growth and Poverty Alleviation , 2001 .

[207]  P. Collier,et al.  The Politics of Hunger , 2008 .

[208]  Jan Willem Gunning,et al.  Explaining African Economic Performance , 1999 .

[209]  P. Pingali,et al.  HIV/AIDS and the agricultural sector in Eastern and Southern Africa: anticipating the consequences. , 2006 .

[210]  C. Timmer.  Farmers and Markets: The Political Economy of New Paradigms , 1997 .

[211]  M. Arellano.  Panel Data Econometrics , 2002 .

[212]  Theodore W. Schultz,et al.  Transforming Traditional Agriculture , 1964 .

[213]  Herman van Keulen,et al.  Resource limitations in Sahelian agriculture , 2001 .

[214]  Seth C. Kalichman,et al.  People at risk. , 1996 .

[215]  S. Biggs,et al.  Evolving Themes in Rural Development 1950s- 2000s , 2001 .

[216]  T. Reardon,et al.  Transforming the rural nonfarm economy , 2007 .

[217]  Rui Benfica,et al.  Policy Synthesis for Cooperating Usaid Offices and Country Missions Smallholder Income and Land Distribution in Africa: Implications for Poverty Reduction Strategies , 2022 .

[218]  B. Cooksey.  Marketing Reform? The Rise and Fall of Agricultural Liberalisation in Tanzania , 2003 .

[219]  P. Hazell,et al.  Targeting public investments by agro-ecological zone to achieve growth and poverty alleviation goals in rural India , 2000 .

[220]  S. Haggblade.  Prospects for equitable growth in rural sub-Saharan Africa , 1988 .

[221]  P. Hazell,et al.  Farm-nonfarm linkages in rural sub-Saharan Africa , 1989 .

[222]  A. Berry,et al.  The contribution of agriculture to growth: Colombia. , 1995 .

[223]  Gershon Feder.  Land Policies and Farm Productivity in Thailand , 1988 .

[224]  C. Barrett,et al.  Agrifood Industry Transformation and Small Farmers in Developing Countries , 2009 .

[225]  Frank Ellis,et al.  Human Vulnerability and Food Insecurity: Policy Implications , 2003 .

[226]  Derek Byerlee,et al.  Planning technologies appropriate to farmers: Concepts and procedures , 1988 .

[227]  T. Reardon.  Using Evidence of Household Income Diversification to Inform Study of the Rural Nonfarm Labor Market in Africa , 1997 .

[228]  Charalambos G. Tsangarides,et al.  Is Growth Enough? Macroeconomic Policy and Poverty Reduction , 2002, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[229]  A. Janvry,et al.  Achieving success in rural development: toward implementation of an integral approach , 2005 .

[230]  E. Crowley,et al.  Agrarian Change and the Changing Relationships Between Toil and Soil in Maragoli, Western Kenya (1900–1994) , 2000 .

[231]  Thomas S. Jayne,et al.  False Promise or False Premise? The Experience of Food and Input Market Reform in Eastern and Southern Africa , 2002 .

[232]  R. Islam,et al.  Rural Industrialisation and Employment in Asia. , 1988 .

[233]  M. Lipton,et al.  The use of genetically modified crops in developing countries , 2003 .

[234]  M. Ravallion,et al.  Poverty and household size , 1994 .

[235]  A. Krueger,et al.  The Political Economy of Agricultural Pricing Policy , 1992 .

[236]  I. Adelman.  Beyond export-led growth , 1984 .

[237]  D. Byerlee.  Indirect employment and income distribution effects of agricultural development strategies : a simulation approach applied to Nigeria , 1973 .

[238]  Julie V. Stanton,et al.  THE ROLE OF AGRIBUSINESS IN DEVELOPMENT: REPLACING THE DIMINISHED ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN RAISING RURAL INCOMES , 2000 .

[239]  J. Whalley,et al.  Globalisation in Developing Countries: The Role of Transaction Costs in Explaining Economic Performance in India , 2003 .

[240]  C. Timmer.  Food Policy in the Era of Supermarkets: What's Different? , 2004 .

[241]  H. Binswanger.  Empowering rural people for their own development , 2007 .

[242]  A. Low.  Environmental and Economic Dilemmas for Farm-households in Africa: When ‘Low-input Sustainable Agriculture’ Translates to ‘High-cost Unsustainable Livelihoods’ , 1994, Environmental Conservation.

[243]  C. Tacoli,et al.  Rural-urban interactions: a guide to the literature , 1998 .

[244]  R. Heltberg.  Rural Market Imperfections and the Farm Size-Productivity Relationship: Evidence from Pakistan , 1998 .

[245]  F. Ellis.  Household strategies and rural livelihood diversification , 1998 .

[246]  B. Gardner,et al.  Causes of rural economic development , 2005 .

[247]  G. Cornia.  Farm size, land yields and the agricultural production function: An analysis for fifteen developing countries , 1985 .

[248]  J. Arias,et al.  MORE THAN FOOD ON THE TABLE: AGRICULTURE'S TRUE CONTRIBUTION TO THE ECONOMY , 2004 .

[249]  Laxman Rao,et al.  Changing Food Systems in India: Resourcesharing and Marketing Arrangements for Vegetable Production in Andhra Pradesh , 2003 .

[250]  Yair Mundlak,et al.  Production and supply , 1998 .

[251]  R. López,et al.  Fighting Rural Poverty in Latin America: New Evidence of the Effects of Education, Demographics, and Access to Land* , 2000, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[252]  P. Sánchez,et al.  Soil Fertility and Hunger in Africa , 2002, Science.

[253]  M. Rosegrant,et al.  Agricultural commercialization and diversification: processes and policies , 1995 .

[254]  M. Lipton.  Can Small Farmers Survive, Prosper, or be the Key Channel to Cut Mass Poverty? , 2006 .

[255]  Prabhu Pingali,et al.  Globalization of Indian Diets and the Transformation of Food Supply Systems , 2004 .

[256]  C. Guarneri.  Cornell University Press , 1991 .

[257]  Moises Syrquin,et al.  Patterns of Development, 1950-1970 , 1975 .

[258]  N. Key,et al.  Contract Farming, Smallholders, and Rural Development in Latin America: The Organization of Agroprocessing Firms and the Scale of Outgrower Production , 1999 .

[259]  P. Hazell,et al.  Government Spending, Growth and Poverty in Rural India , 2000 .

[260]  Jonathan Morduch,et al.  Income Smoothing and Consumption Smoothing , 1995 .

[261]  Kelley Oj.  Agency for International Development. , 1973 .

[262]  J. Escobal.  The Role of Public Infrastructure in Market Development in Rural Peru , 2005 .

[263]  Derek Byerlee,et al.  Modern varieties, productivity, and sustainability : recent experience and emerging challenges , 1996 .

[264]  P. Mujinja,et al.  Sources of financial assistance for households suffering an adult death in Kagera, Tanzania , 2000 .

[265]  A. Suryahadi,et al.  Poverty and Vulnerability in Indonesia Before and After the Economic Crisis , 2003 .

[266]  B. Miller,et al.  The Agrarian Structure in Poland: The Myth of Large-Farm Superiority , 1996 .

[267]  J. Swinnen,et al.  Foreign Direct Investment, Vertical Integration, and Local Suppliers: Evidence from the Polish Dairy Sector , 2004 .

[268]  M. Lipton,et al.  Pro-poor Growth and Pro-growth Poverty Reduction: Meaning, Evidence, and Policy Implications , 2000, Asian Development Review.

[269]  S. Henson,et al.  Private agri-food standards: Implications for food policy and the agri-food system , 2005 .

[270]  Raimundo Soto,et al.  SPATIAL INEQUALITY, MIGRATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHILE , 2004 .

[271]  F. Ellis,et al.  Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Four African Countries , 2004 .

[272]  S. Rozelle,et al.  The Emergence of Supermarkets with Chinese Characteristics: Challenges and Opportunities for China's Agricultural Development , 2004 .

[273]  Derek Byerlee,et al.  Agriculture for Development: Toward a New Paradigm , 2009 .

[274]  Y. Hayami,et al.  Agricultural Development: An International Perspective. , 1972 .

[275]  D. Topouzis,et al.  Sustainable agricultural / rural development and vulnerability to the AIDS epidemic. , 1999 .

[276]  D. Bigman,et al.  Geographical targeting for poverty alleviation : methodology and applications , 2000 .

[277]  Mahabub Hossain.  Nature and impact of the Green Revolution in Bangladesh , 1988 .

[278]  Montek S. Ahluwalia,et al.  Redistribution with Growth. , 1976 .

[279]  F. Ellis.  Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries , 2000 .

[280]  T. Reardon,et al.  The Rise of Kenyan Supermarkets and the Evolution of Their Horticulture Product Procurement Systems , 2004 .

[281]  A CHAVEZ,et al.  [NUTRITION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT]. , 1963, Salud publica de Mexico.

[282]  Christopher B. Barrett,et al.  Food Aid After Fifty Years Recasting Its Role , 2005 .

[283]  M. Ravallion.  Growth, Inequality, and Poverty: Looking Beyond Averages , 2001 .

[284]  D. Tschirley,et al.  Maize Marketing and Trade Policy in a Pro-Poor Agricultural Growth Strategy: Insights from Household Surveys in Eastern and Southern Africa , 2005 .

[285]  Linxiu Zhang,et al.  Growth , Inequality , and Poverty in Rural China The Role of Public Investments , 2002 .

[286]  J. Vorst.  Performance measurement in agri-food supply-chain networks: an overview , 2006 .

[287]  D. Norman.  Economic analysis of agricultural production and labour utilisation among the Hausa in the North of Nigeria , 1973 .

[288]  P. Bardhan.  Interlocking Factor Markets and Agrarian Development: A Review of Issues , 1980 .

[289]  R. Sabates‐Wheeler,et al.  Too Much Inequality or Too Little? Inequality and Stagnation in Ethiopian Agriculture , 2005 .

[290]  Kieran Allen,et al.  Globalisation and its Discontents , 2002 .

[291]  T. Yamano,et al.  A Cross-Country Analysis of Household Responses to Adult Mortality in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications For HIV/AIDS Mitigation And Rural Development Policies. , 2004 .

[292]  K. Beegle.  Labor Effects of Adult Mortality in Tanzanian Households , 2003, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[293]  R. Cooper,et al.  The 1972-75 Commodity Boom , 1975 .

[294]  J. Hobbs,et al.  Measuring the Importance of Transaction Costs in Cattle Marketing , 1997 .

[295]  B. D. S. Salasya,et al.  Crop production and soil nutrient management: an economic analysis of households in western and central Kenya. , 2005 .

[296]  T. Reardon,et al.  The Rise of Supermarkets in Africa: Implications for Agrifood Systems and the Rural Poor , 2003 .

[297]  D. V. D. Walle,et al.  Are Returns to Investment Lower for the Poor? Human and Physical Capital Interactions in Rural Vietnam , 2000 .

[298]  G. Cornia,et al.  Income Distribution Changes and their Impact in the Post-Second World War Period , 2004 .

[299]  Carl K. Eicher,et al.  Agricultural development ideas in historical perspective. , 1998 .

[300]  J. Braun,et al.  Commercialization of agriculture under population pressure: effects on production, consumption, and nutrition in Rwanda. , 1991 .

[301]  S. Block,et al.  Agriculture and Economic Growth: Conceptual Issues and the Keynian Experience , 1995 .

[302]  M. Rosenzweig,et al.  Credit Market Constraints, Consumption Smoothing, and the Accumulation of Durable Production Assets in Low-Income Countries: Investments in Bullocks in India , 1993, Journal of Political Economy.

[303]  L. Benham,et al.  Measuring the costs of exchange , 2000 .

[304]  P. Pardey,et al.  Research returns redux: a meta-analysis of the returns to agricultural R&D , 2000 .

[305]  N. Luykx.  The New Economics of Growth: A Strategy for India and the Developing World , 1976 .

[306]  S. Bhalla,et al.  Mis-specification in farm productivity analysis: the role of land quality , 1988 .

[307]  B. Kang,et al.  Economic analysis of soil erosion effects in alley cropping, no-till and bush fallow systems in South Western Nigeria. , 1990 .

[308]  J. Howell.  Rural Poverty and External Aid , 1990 .

[309]  Irma Adelman,et al.  Economic Growth and Social Equity in Developing Countries , 1973 .

[310]  Hiromitsu Kaneda,et al.  Links to the Green Revolution: A Study of Small-Scale, Agriculturally Related Industry in the Pakistan Punjab , 1975, Economic Development and Cultural Change.

[311]  S. Dercon.  Vulnerability: A Micro Perspective , 2006 .

[312]  S. Fan,et al.  Public Expenditure, Growth and Poverty Reduction in Rural Uganda , 2008 .

[313]  R. Bar-El,et al.  Patterns of Change in Developing Rural Regions , 1987 .

[314]  Christopher B. Barrett,et al.  Agroindustrialization, globalization, and international development An overview of issues, patterns, and determinants , 2000 .

[315]  Julian May,et al.  Sense in Sociability? Social Exclusion and Persistent Poverty in South Africa , 2004 .

[316]  M. Rosegrant,et al.  Transforming the Rural Asian Economy: The Unfinished Revolution , 2000 .

[317]  S. Haggblade.  Building on successes in African agriculture , 2004 .

[318]  Mark W. Rosegrant,et al.  Water policy for efficient agricultural diversification: market-based approaches , 1995 .

[319]  Mahabub Hossain,et al.  Developmental Impact of Rural Infrastructure in Bangladesh , 1990 .