Reconsidering strain theory: Operationalization, rival theories, and adult criminality

Recently a revisionist view of strain theory's empirical adequacy has emerged which holds that the theory's explanatory power depends on how it is operationalized. With an adult community sample, we empirically assess three separate measures of strain to explain self-reported crime: the gap between aspirations and expectations, blocked opportunities, and relative deprivation. The findings reveal that the aspirations-expectations measure is not related to criminal involvement, while perceived blocked opportunities and feelings of relative deprivation significantly affect adult offending. These relationships, however, fail to persist after measures from competing theories (i.e., low self-control, differential association, and social bond) are introduced as controls in the regression equations. Thus, measures from rival theories offer a more fruitful approach to explaining self-reported adult offending.

[1]  Charles R. Tittle,et al.  Modeling Sutherland's Theory of Differential Association: Toward an Empirical Clarification , 1986 .

[2]  S. Messner.  Merton's “social structure and anomie”: The road not taken , 1988 .

[3]  Jack P. Gibbs,et al.  Crime and Human Nature by James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. , 1985 .

[4]  R. Merton.  Social Theory and Social Structure , 1958 .

[5]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Low self-control and imprudent behavior , 1993 .

[6]  R. Agnew.  A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency , 1985 .

[7]  Alex Thio.  A Critical Look at Merton's Anomie Theory , 1975 .

[8]  R. Simons,et al.  Contemporary Theories of Deviance and Female Delinquency: an Empirical Test , 1980 .

[9]  THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE DEVIANT ACT: ANOMIE THEORY AND BEYOND. , 1965 .

[10]  J. D. Orcutt,et al.  DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION AND MARIJUANA USE: A CLOSER LOOK AT SUTHERLAND (WITH A LITTLE HELP FROM BECKER)* , 1987 .

[11]  Robert Agnew,et al.  AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF GENERAL STRAIN THEORY , 1992 .

[12]  N. Passas.  Anomie and corporate deviance , 1990 .

[13]  Earl R. Babbie,et al.  Survey Research Methods , 1984 .

[14]  L. Lanza-Kaduce,et al.  Community Context and Theories of Deviant Behavior: An Examination of Social Learning and Social Bonding Theories , 1984 .

[15]  L. Lanza-Kaduce,et al.  Social learning and deviant behavior: a specific test of a general theory. , 1979, American sociological review.

[16]  David Brownfield,et al.  Self‐control and juvenile delinquency: Theoretical issues and an empirical assessment of selected elements of a general theory of crime , 1993 .

[17]  Richard J. Herrnstein,et al.  Crime and Human Nature , 1985 .

[18]  R. Rosenfeld.  Robert Merton's Contributions to the Sociology of Deviance , 1989 .

[19]  Elliott Currie,et al.  Confronting crime : an American challenge , 1985 .

[20]  Anita S Mak.  Testing a Psychosocial Control Theory of Delinquency , 1990 .

[21]  A. Liska.  Aspirations, Expectations, and Delinquency: Stress and Additive Models , 1970 .

[22]  F. R. Scarpitti,et al.  Perceptions Regarding Value Orientation and Legitimate Opportunity: Delinquents and Non-Delinquents , 1965 .

[23]  Dusten R. Hollist,et al.  Causes of Delinquency , 1950, Juvenile Justice.

[24]  PERCEIVED OPPORTUNITIES, GANG MEMBERSHIP, AND DELINQUENCY. , 1965, American sociological review.

[25]  H. White,et al.  AGE DIFFERENCES IN DELINQUENCY: A TEST OF THEORY* , 1985 .

[26]  Ronald L. Akers,et al.  Adolescent marijuana use: A test of three theories of deviant behavior , 1985 .

[27]  D. Kandel,et al.  Attitude and behavior: a specification of the contingent consistency hypothesis. , 1979, American sociological review.

[28]  M. Silberman.  Toward a theory of criminal deterrence. , 1976 .

[29]  Judith R. Blau,et al.  The Cost of Inequality: Metropolitan Structure and Violent Crime , 1982 .

[30]  Robert J. Sampson,et al.  Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. , 1994 .

[31]  J. Rosenbaum.  Social control, gender, and delinquency: An analysis of drug, property and violent offenders , 1987 .

[32]  S. Bahr,et al.  THE ROLE OF PEERS IN THE COMPLEX ETIOLOGY OF ADOLESCENT DRUG USE , 1987 .

[33]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[34]  R. Agnew.  On “Testing Structural Strain Theories” , 1987 .

[35]  Ronald L. Akers,et al.  SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND ALCOHOL BEHAVIOR AMONG THE ELDERLY , 1989 .

[36]  Y. Cheung,et al.  Social Factors in Adolescent Deviant Behaviour in Hong Kong: An Integrated Theoretical Approach , 1988 .

[37]  T. Hirschi.  Causes of Delinquency. , 1970, British medical journal.

[38]  Stephen A. Cernkovich,et al.  EVALUATING TWO MODELS OF DELINQUENCY CAUSATION Structural Theory and Control Theory , 1978 .

[39]  R. Dull.  Friends' Use and Adult Drug and Drinking Behavior: A Further Test of Differential Association Theory , 1983 .

[40]  Michael R. Gottfredson,et al.  A general theory of crime. , 1992 .

[41]  D. Cressey.  Other people's money , 1953 .

[42]  Raymond A. Eve.  A Study of the Efficacy and Interactions of Several Theories for Explaining Rebelliousness among High School Students. , 1978 .

[43]  F. R. Scarpitti,et al.  Female Delinquency: An Application of Self and Opportunity Theories , 1975 .

[44]  E. F. Jackson,et al.  Offense-Specific Models of the Differential Association Process , 1986 .

[45]  Susan M. Jaquith.  ADOLESCENT MARIJUANA AND ALCOHOL USE , 1981 .

[46]  A. Cohen,et al.  Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang , 1971 .

[47]  D. Dillman.  Mail and telephone surveys : the total design method , 1979 .

[48]  A. Stinchcombe.  Rebellion in a high school , 1964 .

[49]  R. Paternoster,et al.  The Gender Gap in Theories of Deviance: Issues and Evidence , 1987 .

[50]  Curt T. Griffiths,et al.  Social learning theory, drug use, and American Indian youths: A cross-cultural test , 1989 .

[51]  B. Griffin,et al.  Marijuana Use among Students and Peers. , 1978 .

[52]  R. Matsueda.  The Dynamics of Moral Beliefs and Minor Deviance , 1989 .

[53]  Karen Heimer,et al.  Race, Family Structure, and Delinquency: A Test of Differential Association and Social Control Theories. , 1987 .

[54]  Lloyd E. Ohlin,et al.  Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. , 1961 .

[55]  Eric L. Jensen,et al.  Conventional Ties, Peer Influence, and the Fear of Apprehension: a Study of Adolescent Marijuana Use , 1975 .

[56]  R. Matsueda.  Testing control theory and differential association: A causal modeling approach. , 1982 .

[57]  Thomas J. Bernard.  ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG THE “TRULY DISADVANTAGED”* , 1990 .

[58]  R. Lane.  Urban Police and Crime in Nineteenth-Century America , 1980, Crime and Justice.

[59]  Velmer S. Burton,et al.  THE EMPIRICAL STATUS OF STRAIN THEORY , 1992 .

[60]  Robert J. Sampson,et al.  Crime and Deviance Over the Life Course: The Salience of Adult Social Bonds , 1990 .

[61]  Robert J. Sampson,et al.  TURNING POINTS IN THE LIFE COURSE: WHY CHANGE MATTERS TO THE STUDY OF CRIME* , 1993 .

[62]  Thomas J. Bernard.  Testing Structural Strain Theories , 1987 .

[63]  Mark Warr,et al.  AGE, PEERS, AND DELINQUENCY* , 1993 .

[64]  J. Figueira-Mcdonough.  On the Usefulness of Merton's Anomie Theory , 1983 .

[65]  Betty Pfefferbaum,et al.  RISK-TAKING AND SELF-CONTROL: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF DELINQUENCY , 1993 .

[66]  Delbert S. Elliott,et al.  Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use , 1985 .

[67]  D. Nagin,et al.  Enduring individual differences and rational choice theories of crime , 1993 .

[68]  R. Merton.  Social Structure and Anomie , 1938 .

[69]  Stephen A. Cernkovich,et al.  Delinquency, Opportunity, and Gender , 1979 .

[70]  Delbert S. Elliott,et al.  Reconciling race and class differences in self-reported and official estimates of delinquency. , 1980 .

[71]  A. Mood,et al.  Equality of Educational Opportunity. , 1967 .

[72]  Richard Rosenfeld,et al.  Crime and the American Dream , 1993 .

[73]  A. Cohen,et al.  Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. , 1955 .

[74]  J. Covington.  Gender Differences in Criminality among Heroin Users , 1985 .

[75]  B. McCarthy,et al.  Mean Streets: The Theoretical Significance of Situational Delinquency Among Homeless Youths , 1992, American Journal of Sociology.

[76]  David F. Luckenbill.  Criminal Homicide as a Situated Transaction , 1977 .

[77]  J. J. F. Short.  Differential Association as a Hypothesis: Problems of Empirical Testing , 1960 .

[78]  R. Agnew.  Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency , 1992, Crime, Inequality and the State.

[79]  R. Agnew.  A longitudinal test of the revised strain theory , 1989 .

[80]  J. Short,et al.  Significant Adults, Caretakers, and Structures of Opportunity: An Exploratory Study , 1967 .

[81]  B. J. Knight,et al.  EARLY MARRIAGE AND CRIMINAL TENDENCY IN MALES , 1977 .

[82]  S. Bahr,et al.  Test of a Bonding/Association Theory of Adolescent Drug Use , 1986 .

[83]  John C. Quicker.  The Effect of Goal Discrepancy on Delinquency , 1974 .

[84]  R. Paternoster,et al.  DISAGGREGATING SELF-REPORTED DELINQUENCY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY* , 1988 .

[85]  Paul S. Maxim,et al.  Drinking and Driving, Self-Control, and Gender: Testing a General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[86]  J. Segrave,et al.  Evaluating Structural and Control Models of Delinquency Causation , 1983 .

[87]  J. Lasley.  Toward a control theory of white-collar offending , 1988 .