Fidelity Metrics for Virtual Environment Simulations based on Human Judgements of Spatial Memory Awareness States

Declaration Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Introduction 13 1.1 Contributions 9 1.2 Thesis Outline 16 Chapter 2: Background 19 2.1 Computer Graphics Rendering 20 2.1.1 The Physical Behaviour of Light 21 2.1.2 Radiometry and Photometry 22 2.1.3 Computer Graphics Illumination Models 25 2.2 Visual Perception in Realistic Image Synthesis 28 2.2.1 Human Visual Perception 28 2.2.2 Perceptually Driven Rendering 32 2.2.3 Perceptually based Image Quality Metrics 33 2.2.4 Comparing Real and 2D Computer Graphics Scenes 34 2.3 Interactive Computer Graphics Scenes 37

[1]  Michael E. Smith Neurophysiological Manifestations of Recollective Experience during Recognition Memory Judgments , 1993, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[2]  Stuart C. Grant,et al.  Contributions of Proprioception to Navigation in Virtual Environments , 1998, Hum. Factors.

[3]  S Nichols,et al.  Physical ergonomics of virtual environment use. , 1999, Applied ergonomics.

[4]  Deborah Hix,et al.  User-Centered Design and Evaluation of Virtual Environments , 1999, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[5]  S Rajaram,et al.  Perceptual effects on remembering: recollective processes in picture recognition memory. , 1996, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[6]  Karol Myszkowski,et al.  The Visible Differences Predictor: Applications to Global Illumination Problems , 1998, Rendering Techniques.

[7]  Holly E. Rushmeier,et al.  Tone reproduction for realistic images , 1993, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[8]  Katerina Mania,et al.  A Classification for User Embodiment in Collaborative Virtual Environments , 1998 .

[9]  Karol Myszkowski,et al.  Validation proposal for global illumination and rendering techniques , 2001, Comput. Graph..

[10]  G. Salvendy,et al.  Effects of diversity in cognitive restructuring skills on human-computer performance. , 1994, Ergonomics.

[11]  Thomas A. Furness The Super Cockpit and its Human Factors Challenges , 1986 .

[12]  A Koriat,et al.  Memory in naturalistic and laboratory contexts: distinguishing the accuracy-oriented and quantity-oriented approaches to memory assessment. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[13]  Katerina Mania,et al.  Presence and Task Performance: A Reality Centred Approach , 2000 .

[14]  David Travis,et al.  Effective Color Displays: Theory and Practice , 1991 .

[15]  Mel Slater,et al.  The Influence of Body Movement on Subjective Presence in Virtual Environments , 1998, Hum. Factors.

[16]  Robert S. Kennedy,et al.  Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: An enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. , 1993 .

[17]  G. Michel,et al.  Restricting the Field of View: Perceptual and Performance Effects , 1990, Perceptual and motor skills.

[18]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire , 1998, Presence.

[19]  Robert C. Allen,et al.  Terrain Appreciation in Virtual Environments: Spatial Knowledge Acquisition. , 1997 .

[20]  David W. Schloerb,et al.  A Quantitative Measure of Telepresence , 1995, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[21]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Fidelity and Interactivity in Navigational Training: A Comparison of Three Methods , 1994 .

[22]  Robert S. Kennedy,et al.  Developing Automated Methods to Quantify the Visual Stimulus for Cybersickness , 1996 .

[23]  Mary C. Whitton,et al.  Walking > walking-in-place > flying, in virtual environments , 1999, SIGGRAPH.

[24]  Thomas B. Sheridan Further Musings on the Psychophysics of Presence , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[25]  Yoichi Sato,et al.  Real-time input of 3D pose and gestures of a user's hand and its applications for HCI , 2001, Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality 2001.

[26]  Michael P. Snow,et al.  Empirical Models Based on Free-Modulus Magnitude Estimation of Perceived Presence in Virtual Environments , 1998, Hum. Factors.

[27]  Mary Czerwinski,et al.  Immersion in desktop virtual reality , 1997, UIST '97.

[28]  Donald P. Greenberg,et al.  An experimental evaluation of computer graphics imagery , 1986, TOGS.

[29]  John H. Bailey,et al.  Learning and Transfer of Spatial Knowledge in a Virtual Environment , 1994 .

[30]  Endel Tulving,et al.  Varieties of consciousness and levels of awareness in memory. , 1993 .

[31]  Mel Slater,et al.  Depth of Presence in Virtual Environments , 1994, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[32]  Daniel P. Mapes,et al.  Determining the Field of View in HMDs: A Psychophysical Method , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[33]  Dennis Proffitt,et al.  Quantifying immersion in virtual reality , 1997, SIGGRAPH.

[34]  Matthew Lombard,et al.  At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence , 2006 .

[35]  Wijnand A. IJsselsteijn,et al.  Effects of Sensory Information and Prior Experience on Direct Subjective Ratings of Presence , 1999, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[36]  James Arvo,et al.  A framework for realistic image synthesis , 1997, SIGGRAPH.

[37]  Lawrence W. Stark,et al.  The Effects of Pictorial Realism, Delay of Visual Feedback, and Observer Interactivity on the Subjective Sense of Presence , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[38]  Patrick Péruch,et al.  Acquisition of Spatial Knowledge Through Visual Exploration of Simulated Environments , 1995 .

[39]  W. Thornton,et al.  Clinical characterization and etiology of space motion sickness. , 1987, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[40]  Mel Slater,et al.  A Virtual Presence Counter , 2000, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[41]  Robert W. Lindeman,et al.  The effect of 3D widget representation and simulated surface constraints on interaction in virtual environments , 2001, Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality 2001.

[42]  Alan Chalmers,et al.  Simulation Fidelity Metrics for Virtual Environments Based on Memory Semantics Speaker , 2001 .

[43]  Doug A. Bowman,et al.  Design and evaluation of menu systems for immersive virtual environments , 2001, Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality 2001.

[44]  James R. Lackner,et al.  Circumventing Side Effects of Immersive Virtual Environments , 1997, HCI.

[45]  Chris Dede,et al.  Assessing Virtual Reality's Potential for Teaching Abstract Science , 1997 .

[46]  James P. Bliss,et al.  The Virtual Environment Performance Assessment Battery (VEPAB):Development and Evaluation1 , 1994, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[47]  Michael J. Singer,et al.  On Selecting the Right Yardstick , 1999, Presence.

[48]  Ivan E. Sutherland,et al.  The Ultimate Display , 1965 .

[49]  V. Bruce,et al.  Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology , 1985 .

[50]  Andrew S. Glassner,et al.  Principles of Digital Image Synthesis , 1995 .

[51]  Robert B. Welch,et al.  How Can We Determine if the Sense of Presence Affects Task Performance? , 1999, Presence.

[52]  S. Cobb,et al.  Static posture tests for the assessment of postural instability after virtual environment use , 1998, Brain Research Bulletin.

[53]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  A Conceptual Model of the Sense of Presence in Virtual Environments , 1999, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[54]  Ronald R. Mourant,et al.  Human Factors Issues in Virtual Environments: A Review of the Literature , 1998, Presence.

[55]  H H Bülthoff,et al.  Psychophysical support for a two-dimensional view interpolation theory of object recognition. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[56]  Ramsey Ad Virtual Reality induced symptoms and effects : a psychophysiological perspective. , 1999 .

[57]  Jack M. Loomis,et al.  Presence and distal attribution: phenomenology, determinants, and assessment , 1992, Electronic Imaging.

[58]  Mel Slater,et al.  Using Presence Questionnaires in Reality , 2000, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[59]  John M. Gardiner,et al.  Recognition memory and awareness: A large effect of study-test modalities on "know" responses following a highly perceptual orienting task , 1994 .

[60]  Mark Mon-Williams,et al.  What does virtual reality NEED?: human factors issues in the design of three-dimensional computer environments , 1996, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[61]  Gary W. Meyer,et al.  A perceptually based adaptive sampling algorithm , 1998, SIGGRAPH.

[62]  Stephen R. Ellis,et al.  Simulation Fidelity of a Virtual Environment Display , 1994 .

[63]  Robert B. Welch,et al.  The Presence of Aftereffects , 1997, HCI.

[64]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  Collaborative Task Performance for Learning Using a Virtual Environment , 1999, Presence.

[65]  Hunter G. Hoffman,et al.  Virtual Chess: Meaning Enhances Users' Sense of Presence in Virtual Environments , 1998, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact..

[66]  Deborah Hix,et al.  Usability Evaluation Techniques: A Novel Method For Assessing The Usability Of An Immersive Medical , 1999 .

[67]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  Presence and performance within virtual environments , 1995 .

[68]  A. Richardson-Klavehn,et al.  Remembering and knowing , 2000 .

[69]  Frederick P. Brooks What's Real About Virtual Reality? , 1999, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[70]  J. Lackner,et al.  Rapid adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. , 1994, Journal of neurophysiology.

[71]  Katerina Mania,et al.  Usability evaluation techniques for virtual reality technologies , 2002, Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality 2002.

[72]  L. Cooper Varieties of visual representation: How are we to analyze the concept of mental image? , 1995, Neuropsychologia.

[73]  James J. Gibson,et al.  The Information Available in Pictures , 1971 .

[74]  James T. Kajiya,et al.  The rendering equation , 1998 .

[75]  Sheena Rogers Perceiving Pictorial Space , 1995 .

[76]  Myron W. Krueger,et al.  VIDEOPLACE—an artificial reality , 1985, CHI '85.

[77]  Stephen R. Ellis,et al.  What are virtual environments? , 1994, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[78]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  Virtual environments and advanced interface design , 1995 .

[79]  Ralph Schroeder,et al.  Small-Group Behavior in a Virtual and Real Environment: A Comparative Study , 2000, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[80]  Neff Walker,et al.  Evaluating the importance of multi-sensory input on memory and the sense of presence in virtual environments , 1999, Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality (Cat. No. 99CB36316).

[81]  John R. Wilson,et al.  Presence and Side Effects: Complementary or Contradictory? , 1997, HCI.

[82]  Ann McNamara,et al.  Comparing Real & Synthetic Scenes using Human Judgements of Lightness , 2000, Rendering Techniques.

[83]  John C. Hart,et al.  The CAVE: audio visual experience automatic virtual environment , 1992, CACM.

[84]  Kellogg S. Booth,et al.  Evaluating 3D task performance for fish tank virtual worlds , 1993, TOIS.

[85]  Donald P. Greenberg,et al.  The hemi-cube: a radiosity solution for complex environments , 1985, SIGGRAPH.

[86]  Rudy Darken,et al.  Navigating in natural environments: a virtual environment training transfer study , 1998, Proceedings. IEEE 1998 Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium (Cat. No.98CB36180).

[87]  S. Ellis,et al.  Distance Perception of Stereoscopically Presented Virtual Objects Optically Superimposed on Physical Objects by a Head-Mounted See-Through Display , 1994 .

[88]  Thomas A. Furness,et al.  Spatial perception in virtual environments: Evaluating an architectural application , 1993, Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium.

[89]  W. Barfield,et al.  Visualizing the structure of virtual objects using head tracked stereoscopic displays , 1997, Proceedings of IEEE 1997 Annual International Symposium on Virtual Reality.

[90]  John H. Bailey,et al.  Virtual spaces and real world places: transfer of route knowledge , 1996, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[91]  Roy A. Ruddle,et al.  Navigating Large-Scale Virtual Environments: What Differences Occur Between Helmet-Mounted and Desk-Top Displays? , 1999, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[92]  J. E. Flynn A study of subjective responses to low energy and non-uniform lighting systems , 1977 .

[93]  R. So,et al.  Effects of lags on human operator transfer functions with head-coupled systems. , 1995, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[94]  Kay M. Stanney,et al.  Aftereffects of Virtual Environment Exposure: Psychometric Issues , 1997, HCI.

[95]  Michael J. Singer,et al.  Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire , 1998, Presence.

[96]  Scott J. Daly,et al.  Visible differences predictor: an algorithm for the assessment of image fidelity , 1992, Electronic Imaging.

[97]  Dani Lischinski,et al.  Bounds and error estimates for radiosity , 1994, SIGGRAPH.

[98]  Mark Billinghurst,et al.  The use of sketch maps to measure cognitive maps of virtual environments , 1995, Proceedings Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium '95.

[99]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  Presence within Virtual Environments as a Function of Visual Display Parameters , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[100]  Gregory D. Abowd,et al.  Human-Computer Interaction (3rd Edition) , 2003 .

[101]  Doug A. Bowman,et al.  The Educational Value of an Information-Rich Virtual Environment , 1999, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[102]  Mel Slater,et al.  Taking steps: the influence of a walking technique on presence in virtual reality , 1995, TCHI.

[103]  Katerina Mania,et al.  Connections between lighting impressions and presence in real and virtual environments: an experimental study , 2001, AFRIGRAPH '01.

[104]  Mel Slater,et al.  Measuring Presence: A Response to the Witmer and Singer Presence Questionnaire , 1999, Presence.

[105]  Mel Slater,et al.  Immersion, presence and performance in virtual environments: an experiment with tri-dimensional chess , 1996, VRST.

[106]  Joseph L. Gabbard A Taxonomy of Usability Characteristics in Virtual Environments , 1997 .

[107]  Mark Mon-Williams,et al.  Natural problems for stereoscopic depth perception in virtual environments , 1995, Vision Research.

[108]  Robert H. Gilkey,et al.  The Sense of Presence for the Suddenly Deafened Adult:Implications for Virtual Environments , 1995, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[109]  Michael Potter Snow,et al.  Charting presence in virtual environments and its effects on performance , 1998 .

[110]  Simon K. Rushton,et al.  Binocular vision in a bi-ocular world: new-generation head-mounted displays avoid causing visual deficit , 1994 .

[111]  Norman E. Lane,et al.  Profile Analysis of Simulator Sickness Symptoms: Application to Virtual Environment Systems , 1992, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[112]  Kay M. Stanney,et al.  Duration and Exposure to Virtual Environments: Sickness Curves During and Across Sessions , 2000, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[113]  Earl Hunt,et al.  The Transfer of Spatial Knowledge in Virtual Environment Training , 1998, Presence.

[114]  Stephen R. Ellis,et al.  Presence of Mind:A Reaction to Thomas Sheridan's Further Musings on the Psychophysics of Presence , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[115]  Katerina Mania,et al.  Between Real and Unreal: Investigating Presence and Task Performance. The Design of a Pilot Study. , 2000 .

[116]  James P. Bliss,et al.  The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality for Administering Spatial Navigation Training to Firefighters , 1997, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[117]  Woodrow Barfield,et al.  The Sense of Presence within Auditory Virtual Environments , 1996, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[118]  Randall B. Smith Experiences with the Alternate Reality Kit: An Example of the Tension between Literalism and Magic , 1987, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[119]  S. J. Segal,et al.  Influence of imaged pictures and sounds on detection of visual and auditory signals. , 1970, Journal of experimental psychology.

[120]  Gary W. Meyer,et al.  Color spatial acuity control of a screen subdivision image synthesis algorithm , 1992, Electronic Imaging.

[121]  W. Brewer,et al.  Role of schemata in memory for places , 1981, Cognitive Psychology.

[122]  Gavriel Salvendy,et al.  Aftereffects and Sense of Presence in Virtual Environments: Formulation of a Research and Development Agenda , 1998, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact..

[123]  Paul M. Sharkey,et al.  Identifying Likely Successful Users of Virtual Reality Systems , 1998, Presence.