Promoting walking and bicycling: assessing the evidence to assist planners

Three hundred well-designed empirical studies were examined to provide guidance on how specific strategies can influence walking or cycling for travel: community design, infrastructure availability, infrastructure quality, programming, pricing, and combined strategies. Urban environments with high levels of walking and cycling for travel typically represent a combination of many factors that help promote these modes. The most compelling argument, particularly for cycling, is that only via an integrated range of built environmental features (including infrastructure and facility improvements), pricing policies, or education programmes will substantive changes result. This has been undertaken in Netherlands, Denmark, and parts of Germany for decades. By linking research to practical advice, the article fills a gap between (a) the many excellent literature reviews pointing to where further research is needed and (b) useful practice-oriented guidelines based on experience.

[1]  P. Stopher,et al.  Households on the Move: New Approach to Voluntary Travel Behavior Change , 2006 .

[2]  A. King,et al.  Piloting the feasibility and effectiveness of print- and telephone-mediated interventions for promoting the adoption of physical activity in Australian adults. , 2005, Journal of science and medicine in sport.

[3]  R. Ewing,et al.  Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change , 2008 .

[4]  B. Giles-Corti,et al.  Encouraging children and adolescents to be more active , 2007, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[5]  H Summala,et al.  Attention and expectation problems in bicycle-car collisions: an in-depth study. , 1998, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[6]  J. Pucher,et al.  Infrastructure, programs, and policies to increase bicycling: an international review. , 2010, Preventive medicine.

[7]  A. Bauman,et al.  Correlates of adults' participation in physical activity: review and update. , 2002, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[8]  John Pucher,et al.  Urban Travel Behavior as the Outcome of Public Policy: The Example of Modal-Split in Western Europe and North America , 1988 .

[9]  A. El-geneidy,et al.  Access to Destinations: How Close Is Close Enough? Estimating Accurate Distance Decay Functions for Multiple Modes and Different Purposes , 2008 .

[10]  Amer Shalaby,et al.  Case Study: Relationship of Walk Access Distance to Transit with Service, Travel, and Personal Characteristics , 2007 .

[11]  Christine M. Hoehner,et al.  Perceived and objective environmental measures and physical activity among urban adults. , 2005, American journal of preventive medicine.

[12]  P. Olszewski,et al.  Using Equivalent Walking Distance to Assess Pedestrian Accessibility to Transit Stations in Singapore , 2005 .

[13]  D. Shoup.  The High Cost of Free Parking , 1997 .

[14]  B. Saelens,et al.  Built environment correlates of walking: a review. , 2008, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[15]  Roy Cameron,et al.  Inferring strategies for disseminating physical activity policies, programs, and practices from the successes of tobacco control. , 2006, American journal of preventive medicine.

[16]  Michael A. P. Taylor,et al.  Voluntary Travel Behavior Change Programs in Australia: The Carrot Rather Than the Stick in Travel Demand Management , 2007 .

[17]  Ross C Brownson,et al.  A multilevel ecological approach to promoting walking in rural communities. , 2005, Preventive medicine.

[18]  Konstadinos G. Goulias,et al.  Travel Behavior Analysis of South Perth Individualized Marketing Intervention , 2002 .

[19]  Paul Schimek,et al.  Extent and correlates of walking in the USA , 2007 .

[20]  John Forester,et al.  The Bikeway Controversy , 1994 .

[21]  Mark Petticrew,et al.  The physical environment and physical activity: a critical appraisal of review articles. , 2007, American journal of preventive medicine.

[22]  W. Marshall,et al.  Research Article: Evidence on Why Bike-Friendly Cities Are Safer for All Road Users , 2011 .

[23]  J. Brug,et al.  Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth – a review and update , 2007, Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

[24]  K. Krizek,et al.  Proximity to Trails and Retail: Effects on Urban Cycling and Walking , 2006 .

[25]  N. Mutrie,et al.  Interventions to promote walking: systematic review , 2007, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[26]  M. Petticrew,et al.  Promoting walking and cycling as an alternative to using cars: systematic review , 2004, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[27]  Environmental Systems.  Driving and the built environment : the effects of compact development on motorized travel, energy use, and CO2 emissions , 2009 .

[28]  William W. Hunter,et al.  Conversions of wide curb lanes -- The effect on bicycle and motor vehicle interactions , 2005 .

[29]  Ma Xiang-lu,et al.  Commuting by Bicycle:An Overview of the Literature , 2011 .

[30]  John Pucher,et al.  Cycling safety on bikeways vs. roads , 2001 .

[31]  Susan L Handy,et al.  Factors associated with proportions and miles of bicycling for transportation and recreation in six small US cities , 2009 .

[32]  Daniel A. Badoe,et al.  Transportation–land-use interaction: empirical findings in North America, and their implications for modeling , 2000 .

[33]  Kristiann C Heesch,et al.  Feasibility of a Minimal Contact Intervention to Promote Walking among Insufficiently Active Women , 2005, American journal of health promotion : AJHP.

[34]  J. E. Martin,et al.  A home-based behavioral intervention to promote walking in sedentary ethnic minority women: project WALK. , 1998, Women's health.

[35]  J. Brug,et al.  Neighbourhood inequalities in physical inactivity: the role of neighbourhood attractiveness, proximity to local facilities and safety in the Netherlands. , 2005, Social science & medicine.

[36]  J. Sallis,et al.  Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures , 2003, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[37]  Khan Rubayet Rahaman.  DESIGN AND SAFETY OF PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES: IN DHAKA CITY, BANGLADESH , 2010 .

[38]  Lawrence D. Frank,et al.  Traffic Safety and Safe Routes to Schools , 2007 .

[39]  John Forester.  Bicycle Transportation: A Handbook for Cycling Transportation Engineers , 1983 .

[40]  A. Cheadle,et al.  Cycling and the Built Environment, a US Perspective , 2005 .

[41]  Robert B. Noland,et al.  Smart Bicycles in an Urban Area: Evaluation of a Pilot Scheme in London , 2006 .

[42]  Lisa Aultman-Hall.  A SUMMARY OF THE SAFETY RELATED RESULTS OF A CANADIAN BICYCLE COMMUTER SURVEY , 2000 .

[43]  Kelly R Evenson,et al.  Association Between Physical Activity and Proximity to Physical Activity Resources Among Low-Income, Midlife Women , 2006, Preventing chronic disease.

[44]  Michael Duncan,et al.  Walking, bicycling, and urban landscapes: evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area. , 2003, American journal of public health.

[45]  Kelly J. Clifton,et al.  Local shopping as a strategy for reducing automobile travel , 2001 .

[46]  Mariela Alfonzo,et al.  Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School legislation: urban form changes and children's active transportation to school. , 2005, American journal of preventive medicine.

[47]  J. Stutts,et al.  Study of Bicycle Lanes Versus Wide Curb Lanes , 1999 .

[48]  Kevin J. Krizek,et al.  Analysing the benefits and costs of bicycle facilities via online guidelines , 2007 .

[49]  A Pedler,et al.  CYCLE TRACK CROSSINGS OF MINOR ROADS , 2000 .

[50]  D. Merom,et al.  An environmental intervention to promote walking and cycling--the impact of a newly constructed Rail Trail in Western Sydney. , 2003, Preventive medicine.

[51]  Ann Forsyth,et al.  The built environment, walking, and physical activity: Is the environment more important to some people than others? , 2009 .

[52]  H Summala,et al.  Bicycle accidents and drivers' visual search at left and right turns. , 1996, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[53]  J. Salmon,et al.  Perceptions about the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children. , 2004, Preventive medicine.

[54]  C. Lawson,et al.  Do attributes in the physical environment influence children's physical activity? A review of the literature , 2006, The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity.

[55]  B. Wee.  Land use and transport: research and policy challenges , 2002 .

[56]  J. M. Oakes,et al.  Design and Destinations: Factors Influencing Walking and Total Physical Activity , 2008 .

[57]  Ralph Buehler,et al.  Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany , 2008 .

[58]  Xinyu Cao,et al.  Examining the Impacts of Residential Self‐Selection on Travel Behaviour: A Focus on Empirical Findings , 2009 .

[59]  Jennifer Dill.  Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure , 2009, Journal of public health policy.

[60]  N. Mutrie,et al.  “Walk in to Work Out”: a randomised controlled trial of a self help intervention to promote active commuting , 2002, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[61]  K. Krizek.  Two Approaches to Valuing Some of Bicycle Facilities' Presumed Benefits: Propose a session for the 2007 National Planning Conference in the City of Brotherly Love , 2006 .

[62]  Reid Ewing,et al.  Travel and the Built Environment: A Synthesis , 2001 .

[63]  David L Harkey,et al.  Evaluation of Shared-Use Facilities for Bicycles and Motor Vehicles , 1997 .

[64]  Kevin J. Krizek,et al.  Explaining Changes in Walking and Bicycling Behavior: Challenges for Transportation Research , 2009 .

[65]  S. Carlson,et al.  Barriers to children walking to or from school--United States, 2004. , 2005, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[66]  B. Giles-Corti,et al.  Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school. , 2006, American journal of preventive medicine.

[67]  William H. Greene,et al.  School Location and Student Travel Analysis of Factors Affecting Mode Choice , 2004 .

[68]  Alan Wachtel,et al.  Risk Factors for Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Collisions at Intersections * , 1994 .

[69]  J. M. Oakes,et al.  Does Residential Density Increase Walking and Other Physical Activity? , 2007 .

[70]  C. Black,et al.  Encouraging Walking: The Case of Journey-to-school Trips in Compact Urban Areas , 2001 .

[71]  Karel Martens,et al.  The bicycle as a feedering mode: experiences from three European countries , 2004 .

[72]  S. Laffrey,et al.  Promotion of physical activity in low-income mothers using pedometers. , 2007, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[73]  David M Williams,et al.  Interventions to increase walking behavior. , 2008, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[74]  Frederick P Rivara,et al.  Preferred modes of travel among older adults: what factors affect the choice to walk instead of drive? , 2009, Journal of safety research.

[75]  Sally F. Kelty,et al.  Encouraging Walking for Transport and Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents , 2009, Sports medicine.

[76]  K. Powell,et al.  The Effectiveness of Urban Design and Land Use and Transport Policies and Practices to Increase Physical Activity: A Systematic Review. , 2006, Journal of physical activity & health.

[77]  Marlon G. Boarnet,et al.  California's Safe Routes to School Program: Impacts on Walking, Bicycling, and Pedestrian Safety , 2005 .

[78]  N. Owen,et al.  Environmental factors associated with adults' participation in physical activity: a review. , 2002, American journal of preventive medicine.

[79]  Adrian Bauman,et al.  Wheeling Walks: a community campaign using paid media to encourage walking among sedentary older adults. , 2002, Preventive medicine.

[80]  P. Jacobsen.  Safety in numbers: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling , 2003, Injury prevention : journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention.

[81]  J. Brug,et al.  Potential environmental determinants of physical activity in adults: a systematic review , 2007, Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

[82]  A. Moudon,et al.  Correlates of Walking for Transportation or Recreation Purposes. , 2006, Journal of physical activity & health.

[83]  Jennifer Dill,et al.  Bicycle Commuting and Facilities in Major U.S. Cities: If You Build Them, Commuters Will Use Them , 2003 .

[84]  Kelly R Evenson,et al.  The relationship between leisure, walking, and transportation activity with the natural environment. , 2007, Health & place.