Lead (Pb) legacy from vehicle traffic in eight California urbanized areas: continuing influence of lead dust on children's health.

This article describes the magnitude of U.S. lead (Pb) additives in gasoline from 1927 to 1994 and estimated quantities of Pb dispersed by vehicle traffic in eight urbanized areas (UAs) of California from 1950 to 1982. The findings are the basis for predicting the health impact of Pb on children living in UA of California. Quantitative U.S. national data for 1927-1994 were from the U.S. Senate hearing of the 1984 Airborne Lead Reduction Act. Vehicle traffic data, fuel efficiency, percentage leaded gasoline, and quantities of Pb in gasoline were obtained for 1982 from public and corporate records to estimate vehicle Pb emissions for small to very large UAs of California. California fuel consumption records and yearly quantities of Pb additives per gallon were the basis for estimating the 1950-1982 dispersion of Pb in each UA. Lead additives were calculated by multiplying annual vehicle fuel used by average Pb per gallon. The proportion of Pb additive for each UA was calculated from vehicle miles traveled (VMT) driven in 1982 divided by miles per gallon fuel consumption times the ratio of leaded to unleaded fuel times Pb additive per gallon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency calculations of the fates of Pb were used to estimate Pb aerosol dispersal in each UA. About 108 billion miles of travel in 1982 within 8 UAs accounts for 3200metric tons of Pb additives or approximately 60% total Pb additives in California. Between the 1950-1982 peak of Pb additives, about 258,000metric tons are accounted for out of the state 412,000metric tons total during the same time period. The estimates of the quantities of Pb dust that accumulated within various UAs in California assists with predicting the continuing influences of Pb on children's exposure. Mapping the soil Pb reservoir assists with establishing the priority for enhancing environments of children.

[1]  R. Lankey,et al.  Mass balance for lead in the California South Coast Air Basin: an update. , 1998, Environmental research.

[2]  Z. Bai,et al.  Comparison of techniques to reduce residential lead dust on carpet and upholstery: the new jersey assessment of cleaning techniques trial. , 2002, Environmental health perspectives.

[3]  Jack Caravanos,et al.  An exterior and interior leaded dust deposition survey in New York City: results of a 2-year study. , 2006, Environmental research.

[4]  L. Frisch,et al.  Cost of Child Lead Poisoning to Taxpayers in Mahoning County, Ohio , 2005, Public health reports.

[5]  J. Alexander,et al.  Soil pollution in day-care centers and playgrounds in Norway: national action plan for mapping and remediation , 2008, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[6]  E. M. Shelton,et al.  Long-term historical trends in gasoline properties are charted , 1982 .

[7]  P J Lioy,et al.  Seasonal influences on childhood lead exposure. , 2000, Environmental health perspectives.

[8]  R. Sorkhabi Making sense of Middle Eastern petroleum , 2005 .

[9]  P. Mielke,et al.  New Orleans soil lead (Pb) cleanup using Mississippi River alluvium: need, feasibility, and cost. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[10]  P. Mielke,et al.  Quantities and associations of lead, zinc, cadmium, manganese, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and copper in fresh Mississippi delta alluvium and New Orleans alluvial soils. , 2000, The Science of the total environment.

[11]  A. Leviton,et al.  Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. , 1979, The New England journal of medicine.

[12]  Philip J Landrigan,et al.  Environmental pollutants and disease in American children: estimates of morbidity, mortality, and costs for lead poisoning, asthma, cancer, and developmental disabilities. , 2002, Environmental health perspectives.

[13]  J. W. Roberts,et al.  Reducing Dust, Lead, Dust Mites, Bacteria, and Fungi in Carpets by Vacuuming , 1999, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[14]  Lisa D. Sabin,et al.  Dry atmospheric deposition rates of metals along a coastal transect in southern California , 2008 .

[15]  H. Mielke,et al.  Soil is an important pathway of human lead exposure. , 1998, Environmental health perspectives.

[16]  T. Young,et al.  Resuspension of soil as a source of airborne lead near industrial facilities and highways. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[17]  P. Mielke,et al.  Multiple metal contamination from house paints: consequences of power sanding and paint scraping in New Orleans. , 2001, Environmental health perspectives.

[18]  S. Rothenberg,et al.  Blood lead levels in children in south central Los Angeles. , 1996, Archives of environmental health.

[19]  H. Mielke Lead in New Orleans soils: New images of an urban environment , 1994, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[20]  Raul P. Lejano,et al.  Tragedy of the Temporal Commons: Soil-Bound Lead and the Anachronicity of Risk , 2005 .

[21]  A. Emond,et al.  Effects of early childhood lead exposure on academic performance and behaviour of school age children , 2009, Archives of Disease in Childhood.

[22]  C. Davidson,et al.  The role of resuspended soil in lead flows in the California South Coast Air Basin. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[23]  H. Mielke Research ethics in pediatric environmental health: lessons from lead. , 2002, Neurotoxicology and teratology.

[24]  N. Pingitore,et al.  Urban Airborne Lead: X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy Establishes Soil as Dominant Source , 2009, PloS one.

[25]  J. Schauer,et al.  Relationships between size-fractionated indoor and outdoor trace elements at four retirement communities in southern California , 2009 .

[26]  S. D. Ellis,et al.  Agriculture and Natural Resources Agriculture and Natural Resources , 2008 .

[27]  S. Zahran,et al.  New Orleans before and after Hurricanes Katrina/Rita: a quasi-experiment of the association between soil lead and children's blood lead. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[28]  M. Laidlaw,et al.  The Elephant in the Playground: Confronting Lead-Contaminated Soils as an Important Source of Lead Burdens to Urban Populations , 2010, Perspectives in biology and medicine.

[29]  H. Mielke,et al.  Environmental health in minority and other underserved populations: Benign methods for identifying lead hazards at day care centres of New Orleans , 1996, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[30]  P. Mielke,et al.  Hurricane Katrina's impact on New Orleans soils treated with low Lead Mississippi River alluvium. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[31]  H. Mielke,et al.  Urban lead levels in Minneapolis: the case of the Hmong children. , 1984, Environmental research.

[32]  Sj Risch Comparison of Techniques in Gas Analysis , 1990 .

[33]  J. McCulloch,et al.  CHAPTER 7 – Implications for Prevention , 1972 .

[34]  H. Needleman Clair Patterson and Robert Kehoe: two views of lead toxicity. , 1998, Environmental research.

[35]  T. J. Chow,et al.  Chemical concentrations of pollutant lead aerosols, terrestrial dusts and sea salts in Greenland and Antarctic snow strata☆ , 1969 .

[36]  A. Page,et al.  Accumulations of lead in soils for regions of high and low motor vehicle traffic density , 1970 .

[37]  Jun Wu,et al.  Spatial analysis of bioavailable soil lead concentrations in Los Angeles, California. , 2010, Environmental research.

[38]  Daniel Griffith,et al.  Seasonal variation in paediatric blood lead levels in Syracuse, NY, USA , 1996, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[39]  David L. Johnson,et al.  Soil Lead and Children’s Blood Lead Levels in Syracuse, NY, USA , 2002 .

[40]  C. Gonzales,et al.  Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Trace Metals in New Orleans Soils and Sediments , 2004 .

[41]  W. Robertson Blood lead levels. , 2002, Pediatrics.

[42]  H. Mielke Lead in the Inner Cities , 1999, American Scientist.

[43]  David E. Jacobs,et al.  Exposure of U.S. Children to Residential Dust Lead, 1999–2004: I. Housing and Demographic Factors , 2008, Environmental health perspectives.

[44]  David Hanson,et al.  A Personal Perspective on the Initial Federal Health-Based Regulation to Remove Lead from Gasoline , 2009, Environmental health perspectives.

[45]  G. Macey,et al.  An Investigation of Environmental Racism Claims: Testing Environmental Management Approaches with a Geographic Information System , 2001, Environmental management.

[46]  H. Mielke Lead dust contaminated U.S.A. communities: comparison of Louisiana and Minnesota , 1993 .

[47]  D. Layton,et al.  Migration of contaminated soil and airborne particulates to indoor dust. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[48]  Howard W Mielke,et al.  Multiple metal accumulation as a factor in learning achievement within various New Orleans elementary school communities. , 2005, Environmental research.

[49]  P. Mielke,et al.  Permutation Methods: A Distance Function Approach , 2007 .

[50]  Peter Muennig,et al.  The social costs of childhood lead exposure in the post-lead regulation era. , 2009, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[51]  Mei Chen,et al.  The Influence of Exterior Dust and Soil Lead on Interior Dust Lead Levels in Housing That Had Undergone Lead-Based Paint Hazard Control , 2004, Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene.

[52]  D Coltrin,et al.  A survey of lead contamination in soil along Interstate 880, Alameda County, California. , 1993, American Industrial Hygiene Association journal.

[53]  J C Anderson,et al.  Lead concentrations in inner-city soils as a factor in the child lead problem. , 1983, American journal of public health.

[54]  R. Campanella,et al.  Human geography of New Orleans’ high-lead geochemical setting , 2008, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[55]  P. Mielke,et al.  Potential lead on play surfaces: evaluation of the "PLOPS" sampler as a new tool for primary lead prevention. , 2007, Environmental research.

[56]  A. Flegal,et al.  Lead isotope tracking of atmospheric response to post- industrial conditions in Yerevan, Armenia , 2002 .

[57]  H. Mielke,et al.  Soil Lead at Elementary Public Schools: Comparison Between School Properties and Residential Neighbourhoods of New Orleans , 1999 .

[58]  K. J. Berry,et al.  Children's blood lead and standardized test performance response as indicators of neurotoxicity in metropolitan New Orleans elementary schools. , 2009, Neurotoxicology.

[59]  Christopher Gonzales,et al.  Urban soil-lead (Pb) footprint: retrospective comparison of public and private properties in New Orleans , 2008, Environmental geochemistry and health.

[60]  Michael R. Schock,et al.  Lead Exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention , 2008, Environmental health perspectives.

[61]  D. Griffith,et al.  The geographic distribution of metals in urban soils: the case of Syracuse, NY , 2009 .

[62]  D Rosner,et al.  A 'gift of God'?: The public health controversy over leaded gasoline during the 1920s. , 1985, American journal of public health.

[63]  David B. Smith,et al.  A regional soil and sediment geochemical study in northern California , 2009 .

[64]  Gabriel M. Filippelli,et al.  Resuspension of urban soils as a persistent source of lead poisoning in children : A review and new directions , 2008 .

[65]  G. Kamenov High-precision Pb isotopic measurements of teeth and environmental samples from Sofia (Bulgaria): insights for regional lead sources and possible pathways to the human body , 2008 .

[66]  Howard W Mielke,et al.  Nonlinear association between soil lead and blood lead of children in metropolitan New Orleans, Louisiana: 2000-2005. , 2007, The Science of the total environment.

[67]  Paul W. MielkeJr.,et al.  Changes of Multiple Metal Accumulation (MMA) in New Orleans Soil: Preliminary Evaluation of Differences between Survey I (1992) and Survey II (2000) , 2005, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[68]  Daniel A Griffith,et al.  Mass transfer of soil indoors by track-in on footwear. , 2006, The Science of the total environment.

[69]  P. Mielke,et al.  PAH and metal mixtures in New Orleans soils and sediments. , 2001, The Science of the total environment.

[70]  J. Havlena,et al.  Factors associated with the seasonality of blood lead levels among preschool Wisconsin children. , 2009, WMJ : official publication of the State Medical Society of Wisconsin.

[71]  Howard W Mielke,et al.  PAHs and metals in the soils of inner-city and suburban New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. , 2004, Environmental toxicology and pharmacology.

[72]  H. Binns,et al.  Relationships of video assessments of touching and mouthing behaviors during outdoor play in urban residential yards to parental perceptions of child behaviors and blood lead levels , 2007, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[73]  P. Mielke,et al.  Associations between soil lead and childhood blood lead in urban New Orleans and rural Lafourche Parish of Louisiana. , 1997, Environmental health perspectives.

[74]  Gabriel M. Filippelli,et al.  Seasonality and Children’s Blood Lead Levels: Developing a Predictive Model Using Climatic Variables and Blood Lead Data from Indianapolis, Indiana, Syracuse, New York, and New Orleans, Louisiana (USA) , 2005, Environmental health perspectives.

[75]  T. Talbot,et al.  Seasonality and trend in blood lead levels of New York State children , 2004, BMC pediatrics.

[76]  C R Gonzales,et al.  The urban environment and children's health: soils as an integrator of lead, zinc, and cadmium in New Orleans, louisiana, U.S.A. , 1999, Environmental research.

[77]  D. Jacobs,et al.  Exposure of U.S. Children to Residential Dust Lead, 1999–2004: II. The Contribution of Lead-Contaminated Dust to Children’s Blood Lead Levels , 2008, Environmental health perspectives.

[78]  Robert C. Post Urban mass transit : the life story of a technology , 2007 .

[79]  R J Prevost,et al.  Levels of platinum, palladium, and lead in populations of Southern California. , 1975, Environmental health perspectives.

[80]  Jesper Kristiansen,et al.  Remediation of soil from lead-contaminated kindergartens reduces the amount of lead adhering to children's hands , 2005, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

[81]  R. Root,et al.  Lead loading of urban streets by motor vehicle wheel weights. , 2000, Environmental health perspectives.

[82]  J. Nigg,et al.  Low Blood Lead Levels Associated with Clinically Diagnosed Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Mediated by Weak Cognitive Control , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[83]  M. Laidlaw,et al.  Urban Lead Poisoning and Medical Geology: An Unfinished Story , 2005 .

[84]  James J. Fanelli,et al.  Effects of Reducing Lead in Gasoline: An Analysis of the International Experience , 1999 .

[85]  W. Kovarik Ethyl-leaded Gasoline: How a Classic Occupational Disease Became an International Public Health Disaster , 2005, International journal of occupational and environmental health.

[86]  L. Goldman,et al.  Lead levels in the household environment of children in three high-risk communities in California. , 1995, Environmental Research.