The representation of soil moisture freezing and its impact on the stable boundary layer

The 1993 to 1996 version of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts model had a pronounced near-surface cold bias in winter over continental areas. the problem is illustrated in detail with help of tower observations. It is shown that a positive feedback exists in the land surface boundary-layer coupling that has the potential to amplify model biases. If the surface is cooled too much the boundary layer becomes too stable, reducing the downward heat flux and making the surface even colder. This positive feedback is believed to be stronger in the model than in the real atmosphere, resulting in diurnal temperature cycles that are too large and in excessive soil cooling on a seasonal time-scale in winter. An important contributor to the excessive winter cooling turns out to be the lack of soil moisture freezing in the model. the importance of this process is obvious from soil temperature observations. the seasonal soil temperature evolution shows a clear ‘barrier’ at 0°C due to the thermal inertia of freezing and thawing. A more quantitative illustration is the result of a simple calculation. This shows that the amount of energy necessary to freeze/thaw 1 m3 of wet soil, would cool/warm this soil by about 50 K if the phase transition was not taken into account. To reduce the winter cold bias in the model, three model changes have been tested and are described: (i) the introduction of the process of soil moisture freezing; (ii) revised stability functions to increase the turbulent diffusion of heat in stable situations; and (iii) an increase of the skin-layer conductivity. the effect of these changes on the seasonal evolution of soil and 2 m temperatures is investigated with long runs that have terms that relax towards the operational analysis above the boundary layer. In this way the impact can be studied on the temperature forecasts for the winter of 1995/1996, during which the operational model showed considerable soil temperature drift over Europe. Also, short periods of data assimilation (including 10-day forecasts) have been carried out to study the diurnal time-scales and the impact on model performance. The model changes eliminate to a large extent the systematic 2 m temperature biases for the winter of 1995/1996 over Europe and make the soil temperature evolution much more realistic. the soil moisture freezing, in particular, plays a crucial role by introducing thermal inertia near the freezing point, thereby reducing the annual temperature cycle in the soil. the process of soil moisture freezing leads to a considerable warming of the model's near-surface winter climate over continental areas.