Waterborne pathogens in urban watersheds.

A serious concern for managers of water resources, pathogens in the urban environment easily enter waters through a number of pathways, including discharge of inadequately treated sewage, stormwater runoff, combined sewer overflows and sanitary sewer overflows. Pathogens in US ambient water bodies are regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA), while pathogens in drinking water supplies are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) are developed in accordance with CWA regulations for ambient water bodies with bacterial concentrations exceeding the water quality standard, which generally is a measure of a bacterial indicator organism. However, developing a TMDL for a supplementary indicator or pathogen is also required if a use impairment would still exist even after the water body is in compliance with the standard. This occurs because indicator organisms do not reflect the presence of pathogen contamination with complete certainty. The evaluation of pathogen indicators and summary of epidemiological studies presented are resources for those developing TMDLs to achieve water quality standards and restore water bodies to their intended uses.

[1]  R. Arnone,et al.  Evaluating Cryptosporidium and Giardia concentrations in combined sewer overflow. , 2006, Journal of water and health.

[2]  M. Borst,et al.  The Role of Stormwater Research in BMP DesignPathogens and Regulatory Demands , 2005 .

[3]  M. Borst,et al.  Investigation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia Concentrations in Combined Sewer Overflow and Stormwater Runoff , 2005 .

[4]  E. James,et al.  Assessment and Management of Watershed Microbial Contaminants , 2004 .

[5]  Michael J Beach,et al.  HEALTHIER • PEOPLE TM Surveillance for Waterborne-Disease Outbreaks — United States , 1999 – 2000 , 2002 .

[6]  J. M. Simpson,et al.  Microbial source tracking: state of the science. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[7]  K. Shadan,et al.  Available Online at , 2002 .

[8]  S. Belkin,et al.  Survival of enteric bacteria in seawater. , 2001, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[9]  M. Sobsey,et al.  Comparative survival of enteric viruses and bacteria in Atlantic Ocean seawater. , 2001, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[10]  S. Lele,et al.  Climate and waterborne disease outbreaks , 2000 .

[11]  M. Rivas,et al.  [Isolation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in storm drains in the city of Mar del Plata with bacterial contamination of fecal origin]. , 2000, Revista Argentina de microbiologia.

[12]  D. Levy,et al.  Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1997-1998. , 2000, MMWR. CDC surveillance summaries : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. CDC surveillance summaries.

[13]  J S Witte,et al.  The health effects of swimming in ocean water contaminated by storm drain runoff. , 1999, Epidemiology.

[14]  D. Levy,et al.  Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1995-1996. , 1998, MMWR. CDC surveillance summaries : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. CDC surveillance summaries.

[15]  E. Dubois,et al.  Devenir des virus entériques en mer et influence des facteurs environnementaux , 1998 .

[16]  G. McBride,et al.  Health effects of marine bathing in New Zealand , 1998 .

[17]  G. Craun,et al.  Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1993-1994. , 1996, MMWR. CDC surveillance summaries : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. CDC surveillance summaries.

[18]  T. Nerad,et al.  Effects of low temperatures on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts , 1996, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[19]  D. Kay,et al.  Predicting likelihood of gastroenteritis from sea bathing: results from randomised exposure , 1994, The Lancet.

[20]  D. Kleinbaum,et al.  The health effects of swimming at Sydney beaches. The Sydney Beach Users Study Advisory Group. , 1993, American journal of public health.

[21]  G. Craun,et al.  Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1989-1990. , 1991, MMWR. CDC surveillance summaries : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. CDC surveillance summaries.

[22]  G. McFeters,et al.  Survival and injury of Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Yersinia enterocolitica in stream water. , 1991, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[23]  Ramon G. Lee,et al.  Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in surface water supplies , 1991, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[24]  R. Calderon,et al.  Health effects of swimmers and nonpoint sources of contaminated water. , 1991, International journal of environmental health research.

[25]  W. Cheung,et al.  Health effects of beach water pollution in Hong Kong , 1990, Epidemiology and Infection.

[26]  D. Zmirou,et al.  Epidemiological significance of microbiological pollution criteria for river recreational waters. , 1989, International journal of epidemiology.

[27]  P. Munro,et al.  Influence of prior growth conditions on low nutrient response of Escherichia coli in seawater. , 1989, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[28]  N. E. Brown,et al.  A prospective study of swimming-related illness. II. Morbidity and the microbiological quality of water. , 1985, American journal of public health.

[29]  Valerie J. Harwood,et al.  Microbial Source Tracking , 2006 .

[30]  R. Ashley,et al.  Wet-Weather Flow in the Urban Watershed - technology and management, Lewis Publishers , 2002 .

[31]  Ian L. Pepper,et al.  Survival of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, poliovirus and Salmonella in marine waters , 1997 .

[32]  I. Yu,et al.  Epidemiological study of swimming-associated illnesses relating to bathing-beach water quality , 1995 .

[33]  W. Levine,et al.  Waterborne Disease Outbreaks, 1986-1988. , 1991, Journal of food protection.

[34]  B. Fattal,et al.  The association between seawater pollution as measured by bacterial indicators and morbidity among bathers at Mediterranean bathing beaches of Israel , 1987 .

[35]  Alfred P. Dufour,et al.  Health effects criteria for fresh recreational waters , 1984 .