Epidemiology of Lung Cancer*

In the United States, lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death in both men and women even though an extensive list of risk factors has been well-characterized. Far and away the most important cause of lung cancer is exposure to tobacco smoke through active or passive smoking. The reductions in smoking prevalence in men that occurred in the late 1960s through the 1980s will continue to drive the lung cancer mortality rates downward in men during the first portion of this century. This favorable trend will not persist unless further reductions in smoking prevalence are achieved. (CHEST 2003; 123:21S–49S)

[1]  R. Pero,et al.  Isoenzyme(s) of glutathione transferase (class Mu) as a marker for the susceptibility to lung cancer: a follow up study. , 1990, Carcinogenesis.

[2]  R. Rylander,et al.  Dietary factors and lung cancer among men in west Sweden. , 1996, International journal of epidemiology.

[3]  R. Doll,et al.  Trends in cancer incidence and mortality , 1994 .

[4]  S. Tsugane,et al.  Cytochrome P-450 lA1 genotype in lung cancer patients and controls in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. , 1994, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[5]  J. Chuang,et al.  Lung cancer and indoor air pollution in Xuan Wei, China. , 1987, Science.

[6]  William Luke,et al.  Smoking and carcinoma of the lung , 1954 .

[7]  A. Lilienfeld,et al.  Familial aggregation of lung cancer among hospital patients. , 1963, Public health reports.

[8]  E. Wynder,et al.  Dietary habits of smokers, people who never smoked, and exsmokers. , 1990, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[9]  T. Byers,et al.  Dietary vitamin A and lung cancer risk: an analysis by histologic subtypes. , 1984, American journal of epidemiology.

[10]  F. Berrino,et al.  Vitamin A and female lung cancer: a case-control study on plasma and diet. , 1987, Nutrition and cancer.

[11]  F. Davis,et al.  Cancer mortality in a radiation-exposed cohort of Massachusetts tuberculosis patients. , 1989, Cancer research.

[12]  L. Kuller,et al.  Relationship between carotenoids and cancer. The multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT) study , 1989, Cancer.

[13]  S. Hecht,et al.  Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[14]  A. Stemhagen,et al.  Smoking and lung cancer: risk as a function of cigarette tar content. , 1988, Preventive medicine.

[15]  W. Willett,et al.  Prospective study of fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of lung cancer among men and women. , 2000, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[16]  R. Doll,et al.  The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. , 1981, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[17]  L. Kolonel,et al.  Vegetable consumption and lung cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in Hawaii. , 1989, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[18]  Y. Yatabe,et al.  Dietary factors and lung cancer risk in Japanese: with special reference to fish consumption and adenocarcinomas , 2001, British Journal of Cancer.

[19]  A. Bergen,et al.  Cigarette smoking. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[20]  R. Hoover,et al.  Debrisoquine metabolism and lung cancer risk. , 1995, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[21]  V. Hawthorne,et al.  Smoking and health: the association between smoking behaviour, total mortality, and cardiorespiratory disease in west central Scotland. , 1978, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[22]  E. Rimm,et al.  Intake of specific carotenoids and risk of lung cancer in 2 prospective US cohorts. , 2000, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[23]  W. Rom,et al.  Relationship between lung cancer and distance of residence from nonferrous smelter stack effluent. , 1981, American journal of industrial medicine.

[24]  P. Enterline,et al.  Mortality experience of arsenic-exposed workers. , 1978, Archives of environmental health.

[25]  A. Andersen,et al.  Cancer of respiratory organs among workers at a nickel refinery in Norway , 1973, International journal of cancer.

[26]  E. Wynder,et al.  The effect of low‐yield cigarette smoking on lung cancer risk , 1988, Cancer.

[27]  S P Cooper,et al.  Air pollution and lung cancer mortality in Harris County, Texas, 1979-1981. , 1988, American journal of epidemiology.

[28]  P L BIDSTRUP,et al.  Carcinoma of the Lung in Workmen in the Chromates-producing Industry in Great Britain* , 1956, British journal of industrial medicine.

[29]  R. Doll,et al.  Long term mortality after a single treatment course with X-rays in patients treated for ankylosing spondylitis. , 1987, British Journal of Cancer.

[30]  D. R. Johnston,et al.  Does occupational exposure to silica cause lung cancer? , 1982, American journal of industrial medicine.

[31]  C. Amos,et al.  Host factors in lung cancer risk: a review of interdisciplinary studies. , 1992, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[32]  P. Taylor,et al.  The effect of dietary intake of fruits and vegetables on the odds ratio of lung cancer among Yunnan tin miners. , 1992, International journal of epidemiology.

[33]  A. Hofman,et al.  Micronutrients and the risk of lung cancer. , 1987, The New England journal of medicine.

[34]  E. Wynder,et al.  The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology. , 1995, Environmental health perspectives.

[35]  K. G. Brown Lung cancer and environmental tobacco smoke: occupational risk to nonsmokers. , 1999, Environmental health perspectives.

[36]  H. McDuffie,et al.  Clustering of cancer in families of patients with primary lung cancer. , 1991, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[37]  M. Melamed,et al.  Dietary beta carotene and lung cancer risk in U.S. nonsmokers. , 1994, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[38]  [Industrial work and lung cancer]. , 1995, Revista de saude publica.

[39]  E. C. Hammond,et al.  ASBESTOS EXPOSURE AND NEOPLASIA. , 1964, JAMA.

[40]  J. Samet,et al.  Lung cancer and occupation in New Mexico. , 1987, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[41]  Edward,et al.  The risk of developing lung cancer associated with antioxidants in the blood: ascorbic acid, carotenoids, alpha-tocopherol, selenium, and total peroxyl radical absorbing capacity. , 1997, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[42]  H. Stockwell,et al.  Dietary intake and risk of lung cancer in women who never smoked. , 1992, Nutrition and cancer.

[43]  J. Samet,et al.  Smoking in China: findings of the 1996 National Prevalence Survey. , 1999, JAMA.

[44]  B J Skipper,et al.  Discrepancies between self-reported and validated cigarette smoking in a community survey of New Mexico Hispanics. , 1988, The American review of respiratory disease.

[45]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Declining lung cancer rates among young men and women in the United States: a cohort analysis. , 1989, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[46]  C. Harris,et al.  Molecular epidemiology of human cancer: contribution of mutation spectra studies of tumor suppressor genes. , 1998, Cancer research.

[47]  R. Salamon,et al.  Dietary vitamin A, beta carotene and risk of epidermoid lung cancer in South-Western France , 1990, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[48]  J. Samet,et al.  Errors in exposure assessment, statistical power and the interpretation of residential radon studies. , 1995, Radiation research.

[49]  W. Ahrens,et al.  Occupational and environmental hazards associated with lung cancer. , 1992, International journal of epidemiology.

[50]  M. Tockman Other host factors and lung cancer susceptibility , 1994 .

[51]  I. Ockene,et al.  Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[52]  L W Parr History of Public Health. , 1959, Science.

[53]  J. Samet,et al.  Radon and lung cancer. , 1989, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[54]  E. Gilbert,et al.  Updated analyses of combined mortality data for workers at the Hanford Site, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Rocky Flats Weapons Plant. , 1993, Radiation research.

[55]  T. Sellers,et al.  Evidence for mendelian inheritance in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. , 1990, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[56]  E. Wynder,et al.  Epidemiologic patterns in lung cancer by histologic type. , 1987, European journal of cancer & clinical oncology.

[57]  Jack Siemiatycki,et al.  Risk Factors For Cancer In The Workplace , 1991 .

[58]  J. Samet,et al.  Personal and family history of respiratory disease and lung cancer risk. , 1986, The American review of respiratory disease.

[59]  N. Day,et al.  Risk factors for lung cancer in singapore chinese, a population with high female incidence rates , 1977, International journal of cancer.

[60]  L. Ger,et al.  Risk factors of lung cancer by histological category in Taiwan. , 1993, Anticancer research.

[61]  N J Wald,et al.  Environmental tobacco smoke exposure and ischaemic heart disease: an evaluation of the evidence , 1997, BMJ.

[62]  L. P. Zhao,et al.  Intake of specific carotenoids and lung cancer risk. , 1993, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[63]  J. Freudenheim,et al.  Diet and alcohol consumption and lung cancer risk in the New York State Cohort (United States) , 1997, Cancer Causes & Control.

[64]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Arsenic and respiratory cancer in man: an occupational study. , 1969, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[65]  P. Reynolds,et al.  Epidemiologic evidence for workplace ETS as a risk factor for lung cancer among nonsmokers: specific risk estimates. , 1999, Environmental health perspectives.

[66]  F. Berrino,et al.  Patterns of lung cancer risk according to type of cigarette smoked , 1984, International journal of cancer.

[67]  J. Samet,et al.  Occupational lung cancer. , 1992, Clinics in chest medicine.

[68]  M. Tockman,et al.  Polymorphisms of the DNA Repair Gene XRCC 1 and Lung Cancer Risk , 2001 .

[69]  Michael J. Wilson,et al.  Comparison of dietary histories in lung cancer cases and controls with special reference to vitamin A , 1980 .

[70]  R. Doll Atmospheric pollution and lung cancer. , 1978, Environmental health perspectives.

[71]  M. Sporn,et al.  Can dietary beta-carotene materially reduce human cancer rates? , 1981, Nature.

[72]  J. Samet,et al.  Determinants of lung cancer risk in cigarette smokers in New Mexico. , 1986, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[73]  R. Doll,et al.  Diet, smoking and lung cancer: a case-control study of 1000 cases and 1500 controls in South-West England , 2001, British Journal of Cancer.

[74]  A. Aromaa,et al.  Role of various carotenoids in lung cancer prevention. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[75]  Jeremiah Stamler,et al.  DIETARY VITAMIN A AND RISK OF CANCER IN THE WESTERN ELECTRIC STUDY , 1981, The Lancet.

[76]  James Ze Wang,et al.  Dietary determinants of lung‐cancer risk: Results from a case‐control study in Yunnan province, China , 1992, International journal of cancer.

[77]  R Cederlöf,et al.  Late effects of air pollution with special reference to lung cancer. , 1978, Environmental health perspectives.

[78]  E. Wynder,et al.  Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence. , 1996, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[79]  P. Vineis,et al.  Tobacco and cancer: epidemiology and the laboratory. , 1995, Environmental health perspectives.

[80]  M. Spitz,et al.  Mutagen sensitivity as a biological marker of lung cancer risk in African Americans. , 1995, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[81]  L. Pickle,et al.  Proportion of lung cancers in males, due to occupation, in different areas of the USA , 1988, International journal of cancer.

[82]  D. Dockery,et al.  An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. , 1993, The New England journal of medicine.

[83]  M. Spitz,et al.  Repair of tobacco carcinogen-induced DNA adducts and lung cancer risk: a molecular epidemiologic study. , 2000, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[84]  G. Pershagen,et al.  Misclassification of Smoking Status and Lung Cancer Risk from Environmental Tobacco Smoke in Never‐Smokers , 1997, Epidemiology.

[85]  A Charloux,et al.  The increasing incidence of lung adenocarcinoma: reality or artefact? A review of the epidemiology of lung adenocarcinoma. , 1997, International journal of epidemiology.

[86]  C. Redmond,et al.  The relationship between the geographic distribution of lung cancer incidence and cigarette smoking in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. , 1982, American journal of epidemiology.

[87]  G. Pershagen,et al.  Air pollution and cancer. , 1990, IARC scientific publications.

[88]  H Becher,et al.  A case-control study of lung cancer with special reference to the effect of air pollution in Poland. , 1990, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[89]  M. G. Ott,et al.  Respiratory cancer and occupational exposure to arsenicals. , 1974, Archives of environmental health.

[90]  W. Blot,et al.  Lung cancer among women in north-east China. , 1990, British Journal of Cancer.

[91]  L. Koo Dietary habits and lung cancer risk among Chinese females in Hong Kong who never smoked. , 1988, Nutrition and cancer.

[92]  B. Macmahon,et al.  Lung cancer and passive smoking , 1981, International journal of cancer.

[93]  D. Pierce,et al.  Lung cancer in radon-exposed miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure. , 1995, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[94]  N. Malats,et al.  Vegetable and fruit intake and the risk of lung cancer in women in Barcelona, Spain. , 1997, European journal of cancer.

[95]  C. Mettlin Milk drinking, other beverage habits, and lung cancer risk , 1989, International journal of cancer.

[96]  G. Pershagen,et al.  Dietary factors and risk of lung cancer in never‐smokers , 1998, International journal of cancer.

[97]  M. Levin,et al.  Cancer and tobacco smoking; a preliminary report. , 1950, Journal of the American Medical Association.

[98]  S. Darby,et al.  A multicenter case–control study of diet and lung cancer among non-smokers , 2004, Cancer Causes & Control.

[99]  E. Wynder,et al.  Impact of long-term filter cigarette usage on lung and larynx cancer risk: a case-control study. , 1979, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[100]  J. Barrett,et al.  Multiple mechanisms for the carcinogenic effects of asbestos and other mineral fibers. , 1989, Environmental health perspectives.

[101]  J. Lubin,et al.  Dark tobacco and lung cancer in Cuba. , 1983, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[102]  R. Wallace,et al.  Clearing the smoke: assessing the science base for tobacco harm reduction. , 2001 .

[103]  E. C. Hammond,et al.  Latency of asbestos disease among insulation workers in the United States and Canada , 1980, Cancer.

[104]  M. Thun,et al.  Cigarette smoking and changes in the histopathology of lung cancer. , 1997, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[105]  R. Doll Cancer of the Lung and Nose in Nickel Workers , 1958, British journal of industrial medicine.

[106]  G. Omenn,et al.  Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[107]  D. Parkin Cancer in developing countries. , 1994, Cancer surveys.

[108]  G. Friedman,et al.  The predictive value of serum beta-carotene for subsequent development of lung cancer. , 1991, Nutrition and cancer.

[109]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Changing patterns of lung cancer in the United States. , 1982, American journal of epidemiology.

[110]  B. Henderson,et al.  Smoking and other risk factors for lung cancer in women. , 1985, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[111]  A. Dayan Tobacco. A Major International Health Hazard , 1988 .

[112]  E. Bjelke,et al.  Dietary vitamin a and human lung cancer , 1975, International journal of cancer.

[113]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Geographic patterns of lung cancer: industrial correlations. , 1976, American journal of epidemiology.

[114]  K. Mabuchi,et al.  The epidemiology of lung cancer. Recent trends. , 1970 .

[115]  J. Potter,et al.  Vegetables, fruit, and lung cancer in the Iowa Women's Health Study. , 1993, Cancer research.

[116]  W. Travis,et al.  Lung cancer , 1995, Cancer.

[117]  A. Smith,et al.  Meta-analysis of studies of lung cancer among silicotics. , 1995, Epidemiology.

[118]  M. Newhouse,et al.  PATTERNS OF MORTALITY IN ASBESTOS FACTORY WORKERS IN LONDON * , 1979, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[119]  K. Zondervan,et al.  Do dietary and supplementary intakes of antioxidants differ with smoking status? , 1996, International journal of epidemiology.

[120]  R. Doll,et al.  MORTALITY OF GASWORKERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CANCERS OF THE LUNG AND BLADDER, CHRONIC BRONCHITIS, AND PNEUMOCONIOSIS , 1965, British journal of industrial medicine.

[121]  L. Garfinkel,et al.  Smoking and lung cancer in women: findings in a prospective study. , 1988, Cancer research.

[122]  A. Miller,et al.  Dietary factors and risk of lung cancer: Results from a case‐control study, toronto, 1981–1985 , 1990, International journal of cancer.

[123]  J. Sunderman A review of the carcinogenicities of nickel, chromium and arsenic compounds in man and animals. , 1976, Preventive medicine.

[124]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  Lung cancer among Chinese women , 1987, International journal of cancer.

[125]  M. Spitz,et al.  A race-specific genetic polymorphism in the CYP1A1 gene is not associated with lung cancer in African Americans. , 1994, Carcinogenesis.

[126]  M. Thun,et al.  Excess mortality among cigarette smokers: changes in a 20-year interval. , 1995, American journal of public health.

[127]  B. Macmahon Some recent issues in low-exposure radiation epidemiology. , 1989, Environmental health perspectives.

[128]  P. Boffetta,et al.  Interactions of tobacco smoking with other causes of lung cancer , 1994 .

[129]  I. Bross,et al.  Risks of lung cancer in smokers who switch to filter cigarettes. , 1968, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[130]  M. Djordjevic,et al.  The changing cigarette. , 1997, Preventive medicine.

[131]  J. Waterhouse Cancer incidence in five continents, v.3 , 1976 .

[132]  L. Pickle,et al.  Dietary vitamins A and C and lung cancer risk in louisiana , 1988, Cancer.

[133]  M KATZ,et al.  AIR POLLUTION AND LUNG CANCER. , 1964, Medical services journal, Canada.

[134]  R. Peto Influence of dose and duration of smoking on lung cancer rates. , 1986, IARC scientific publications.

[135]  R. Peto,et al.  Serum vitamin A and subsequent risk of cancer: cancer incidence follow-up of the Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey. , 1990, American journal of epidemiology.

[136]  L. Garfinkel,et al.  Lung cancer risk is proportional to cigarette tar yield: evidence from a prospective study. , 1989, Preventive medicine.

[137]  J. Cade,et al.  Relationship between diet and smoking--is the diet of smokers different? , 1991, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[138]  M. Shipley,et al.  Cigarettes, lung cancer, and coronary heart disease: the effects of inhalation and tar yield. , 1982, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[139]  S. Wacholder,et al.  A cohort study of tobacco use, diet, occupation, and lung cancer mortality , 1992, Cancer Causes & Control.

[140]  S. Nesnow,et al.  Mouse skin tumorigenicity studies of indoor coal and wood combustion emissions from homes of residents in Xuan Wei, China with high lung cancer mortality. , 1990, Carcinogenesis.

[141]  P. Schulte 1 – A Conceptual and Historical Framework for Molecular Epidemiology , 1993 .

[142]  K. Lynch,et al.  Pulmonary Asbestosis: V. A Report of Bronchial Carcinoma and Epithelial Metaplasia , 1939 .

[143]  P. Hartge,et al.  Race and sex differences in associations of vegetables, fruits, and carotenoids with lung cancer risk in New Jersey (United States) , 1993, Cancer Causes & Control.

[144]  F. Speizer,et al.  Assessment of the epidemiological data relating lung cancer to air pollution. , 1983, Environmental health perspectives.

[145]  D. Phillips,et al.  Different susceptibility to smoking-induced DNA damage among male and female lung cancer patients. , 1994, Cancer research.

[146]  Ivar Heuch,et al.  Occupational exposure and lung cancer risk , 1986, International journal of cancer.

[147]  A. Churg,et al.  Enhanced retention of asbestos fibers in the airways of human smokers. , 1995, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[148]  Xiaowen Chu,et al.  Prediagnostic levels of serum beta-cryptoxanthin and retinol predict smoking-related lung cancer risk in Shanghai, China. , 2001, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[149]  T. Byers,et al.  Diet and lung cancer risk: findings from the Western New York Diet Study. , 1987, American journal of epidemiology.

[150]  M. Jaurand,et al.  Silica and lung cancer: a controversial issue. , 1991, The European respiratory journal.

[151]  R. Coates,et al.  Serum levels of selenium and retinol and the subsequent risk of cancer. , 1988, American journal of epidemiology.

[152]  A. Gross The risk of lung cancer in nonsmokers in the United States and its reported association with environmental tobacco smoke , 1995 .

[153]  I. Sartori Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Lung Cancer in Nonsmoking Women: A Multicenter Study , 1996 .

[154]  E. C. Hammond,et al.  "Tar" and nicotine content of cigarette smoke in relation to death rates. , 1976, Environmental research.

[155]  A. G. Heppleston Silica, pneumoconiosis, and carcinoma of the lung. , 1985, American journal of industrial medicine.

[156]  F. Berrino,et al.  Carrots, green vegetables and lung cancer: a case-control study. , 1986, International journal of epidemiology.

[157]  J. Samet Does idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis increase lung cancer risk? , 2000, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[158]  W. Travis,et al.  Cellular and molecular basis of the asbestos-related diseases. , 1991, The American review of respiratory disease.

[159]  M. Criqui,et al.  Selenium, retinol, retinol-binding protein, and uric acid. Associations with cancer mortality in a population-based prospective case-control study. , 1991, Annals of epidemiology.

[160]  W. Haenszel,et al.  End results and mortality trends in cancer. II. Cancer mortality trends in the United States, 1930-1955. , 1961, National Cancer Institute monograph.

[161]  J. Manson,et al.  Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[162]  F. H. Taylor The relationship of mortality and duration of employment as reflected by a cohort of chromate workers. , 1966, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[163]  C. Wolf,et al.  Glutathione S-transferase mu locus: use of genotyping and phenotyping assays to assess association with lung cancer susceptibility. , 1991, Carcinogenesis.

[164]  Daniel S. Miller,et al.  Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1973-1996, with a special section on lung cancer and tobacco smoking. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[165]  R. Hoover,et al.  Carotenoid intake, vegetables, and the risk of lung cancer among white men in New Jersey. , 1986, American journal of epidemiology.

[166]  J. Boice Studies of atomic bomb survivors. Understanding radiation effects. , 1990, JAMA.

[167]  Silica and lung cancer: a continuing controversy. , 1994, Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore.

[168]  J. Vena Air pollution as a risk factor in lung cancer. , 1982, American journal of epidemiology.

[169]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  At least one in seven cases of cancer is caused by smoking. Global estimates for 1985 , 1994, International journal of cancer.

[170]  I. Bross,et al.  The changing histopathology of lung cancer. A review of 1682 cases , 1977, Cancer.

[171]  L. Damber,et al.  Occupation and male lung cancer: a case-control study in northern Sweden. , 1987, British journal of industrial medicine.

[172]  L. Brown,et al.  Lung cancer in relation to environmental pollutants emitted from industrial sources. , 1984, Environmental research.

[173]  K. Katsouyanni,et al.  Passive smoking and diet in the etiology of lung cancer among non-smokers. , 1990, Cancer causes & control : CCC.

[174]  G. Pershagen,et al.  Lung cancer mortality among men living near an arsenic-emitting smelter. , 1985, American journal of epidemiology.

[175]  J. Dement,et al.  Epidemiology of asbestos-related diseases. , 1980, Environmental health perspectives.

[176]  P. Silcocks,et al.  A case-control study of dietary carotene in men with lung cancer and in men with other epithelial cancers. , 1991, Nutrition and cancer.

[177]  T J Mason,et al.  Lung cancer risk associated with cancer in relatives. , 1991, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[178]  E. Fontham Protective dietary factors and lung cancer. , 1990, International journal of epidemiology.

[179]  W. Willett,et al.  Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer. , 1995, Environmental health perspectives.

[180]  W. Rom,et al.  Lung cancer mortality among residents living near the El Paso smelter. , 1982, British journal of industrial medicine.

[181]  S. Shapiro,et al.  Tar content of cigarettes in relation to lung cancer. , 1989, American journal of epidemiology.

[182]  J. Fraumeni,et al.  ARSENICAL AIR POLLUTION AND LUNG CANCER , 1975, The Lancet.

[183]  P. Stocks Recent epidemiological studies of lung cancer mortality cigarette smoking and air pollution, with discussion of a new hypothesis of causation. , 1966, British Journal of Cancer.

[184]  Familial and genetic factors in the pathogenesis of lung cancer , 1994 .

[185]  G. Kabat,et al.  Differences in dietary intake associated with smoking status. , 1990, European journal of clinical nutrition.

[186]  K. Osann,et al.  Lung cancer in women: the importance of smoking, family history of cancer, and medical history of respiratory disease. , 1991, Cancer research.

[187]  B. Rosner,et al.  Relation of serum vitamins A and E and carotenoids to the risk of cancer. , 1984, The New England journal of medicine.

[188]  E. A. Graham,et al.  Landmark article May 27, 1950: Tobacco Smoking as a possible etiologic factor in bronchiogenic carcinoma. A study of six hundred and eighty-four proved cases. By Ernest L. Wynder and Evarts A. Graham. , 1985, JAMA.

[189]  J. Boreham,et al.  Serum retinol and subsequent risk of cancer. , 1986, British Journal of Cancer.

[190]  R. Hoover,et al.  Genetic component of lung cancer: cohort study of twins , 1994, The Lancet.

[191]  C. Mettlin,et al.  Vitamin A and lung cancer. , 1979, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[192]  W. Hendee,et al.  Estimation of radiation risks. BEIR V and its significance for medicine. , 1992, JAMA.

[193]  Kenneth C Johnson,et al.  A case‐control study of diet and lung cancer in Northeast China , 1997 .

[194]  G. Howe Lung cancer mortality between 1950 and 1987 after exposure to fractionated moderate-dose-rate ionizing radiation in the Canadian fluoroscopy cohort study and a comparison with lung cancer mortality in the Atomic Bomb survivors study. , 1995, Radiation research.

[195]  J. Samet,et al.  Lung cancer risk and vitamin A consumption in New Mexico. , 1985, The American review of respiratory disease.

[196]  L. Kreyberg Lung cancer in workers in a nickel refinery , 1978, British journal of industrial medicine.

[197]  R Doll,et al.  Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years' observations on male British doctors , 1994, BMJ.

[198]  D Hoffmann,et al.  The Less Harmful Cigarette: a Controversial Issue. a Tribute to Ernst L. Wynder , 2000 .

[199]  R. Elston,et al.  Increased familial risk for lung cancer. , 1986, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[200]  An ecogenetic hypothesis for lung cancer in women. , 1989, Archives of internal medicine.

[201]  D. Mavalankar,et al.  Indoor air pollution in developing countries , 1991, The Lancet.

[202]  M Bovenzi,et al.  Air pollution and lung cancer in Trieste, Italy. , 1995, American journal of epidemiology.

[203]  R. Doll,et al.  Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong non-smokers. , 1978, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[204]  R. Hoover,et al.  Lung cancer, race, and a CYP1A1 genetic polymorphism. , 1993, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[205]  R. Brookmeyer,et al.  Serum beta-carotene, vitamins A and E, selenium, and the risk of lung cancer. , 1986, The New England journal of medicine.

[206]  Young Jl,et al.  SEER Program: cancer incidence and mortality in the United States 1973-81. , 1984 .

[207]  T. Hirayama Non-smoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher risk of lung cancer: a study from Japan. , 1981, British medical journal.

[208]  G. Friedman,et al.  Serum retinol and retinol-binding protein levels do not predict subsequent lung cancer. , 1986, American journal of epidemiology.

[209]  S. Stellman,et al.  Doses of nicotine and lung carcinogens delivered to cigarette smokers. , 2000, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[210]  B. Margetts,et al.  The determinants of plasma beta-carotene: interaction between smoking and other lifestyle factors. , 1996, European journal of clinical nutrition.

[211]  I J Selikoff,et al.  ASBESTOS EXPOSURE, CIGARETTE SMOKING AND DEATH RATES * , 1979, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[212]  J. Rimington The effect of filters on the incidence of lung cancer in cigarette smokers. , 1981, Environmental research.

[213]  R. W. Miller,et al.  Cancer mortality in the United States: 1950-1977. , 1982, National Cancer Institute monograph.

[214]  T J Mason,et al.  Occupation and lung cancer risk among New Jersey white males. , 1987, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[215]  L. Kinlen Mortality from smoking in developed countries 1950-2000 , 1996, British Journal of Cancer.

[216]  J. Brockmöller,et al.  Genotype and phenotype of glutathione S-transferase class mu isoenzymes mu and psi in lung cancer patients and controls. , 1993, Cancer research.

[217]  B. Henderson,et al.  Smoking, air pollution, and the high rates of lung cancer in Shenyang, China. , 1989, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[218]  E. Taioli,et al.  A specific African-American CYP1A1 polymorphism is associated with adenocarcinoma of the lung. , 1995, Cancer research.

[219]  A. Churg Lung cancer cell type and occupational exposure , 1994 .

[220]  R. Brownson,et al.  Saturated fat intake and lung cancer risk among nonsmoking women in Missouri. , 1993, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[221]  M. Inoue,et al.  Protective Effects of Raw Vegetables and Fruit against Lung Cancer among Smokers and Ex‐smokers: A Case‐Control Study in the Tokai Area of Japan , 1993, Japanese journal of cancer research : Gann.

[222]  B. Henderson,et al.  Intake of vegetables, fruits, beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin supplements and cancer incidence among the elderly: a prospective study. , 1992, British Journal of Cancer.

[223]  J. Samet,et al.  Lung cancer and cigarette smoking , 1994 .

[224]  P. J. Lawther,et al.  A STUDY OF THE CONCENTRATIONS OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN GAS WORKS RETORT HOUSES , 1965, British journal of industrial medicine.

[225]  J. Mcdonald Silica, silicosis, and lung cancer. , 1989, British journal of industrial medicine.

[226]  M. Kreuzer,et al.  Cigar and pipe smoking and lung cancer risk: a multicenter study from Europe. , 1999, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[227]  L. Kolonel,et al.  Dietary vitamin A, carotene, vitamin C and risk of lung cancer in Hawaii. , 1984, American journal of epidemiology.

[228]  K. Suemasu,et al.  Smoking, occupation and family history in lung cancer patients under fifty years of age. , 1987, Japanese journal of clinical oncology.

[229]  H. Stähelin,et al.  Cancer, vitamins, and plasma lipids: prospective Basel study. , 1984, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[230]  D. Kromhout Essential micronutrients in relation to carcinogenesis. , 1987, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[231]  W. L. Beeson,et al.  Diet and lung cancer in California Seventh-day Adventists. , 1991, American journal of epidemiology.

[232]  J. Lloyd Long-term mortality study of steelworkers. V. Respiratory cancer in coke plant workers. , 1971, Journal of occupational medicine. : official publication of the Industrial Medical Association.

[233]  S. K. Dave,et al.  Occupation, smoking, and lung cancer. , 1988, British journal of industrial medicine.

[234]  F. Thompson,et al.  Dietary vitamin A and lung cancer: results of a case-control study among chemical workers. , 1987, Nutrition and cancer.

[235]  D. Albanes,et al.  The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. , 1994, The New England journal of medicine.

[236]  R. Doll,et al.  Lung Cancer and Other Causes of Death in Relation to Smoking , 1956, British medical journal.

[237]  A. Jemal,et al.  Recent trends in lung cancer mortality in the United States. , 2001, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[238]  Paul A. Schulte,et al.  Molecular epidemiology : principles and practices , 1993 .

[239]  G. Tokuhata FAMILIAL FACTORS IN HUMAN LUNG CANCER AND SMOKING. , 1964, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[240]  W. Ahrens,et al.  Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe. , 1998, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[241]  K. Browne Is asbestos or asbestosis the cause of the increased risk of lung cancer in asbestos workers? , 1986, British journal of industrial medicine.

[242]  J. Gamble,et al.  Silica, silicosis, and lung cancer: a response to a recent working group report. , 2000, Journal of occupational and environmental medicine.

[243]  D. Sackett,et al.  Lung cancer and air pollution in an industrial city--a geographical analysis. , 1988, Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique.

[244]  S. Sidney,et al.  A prospective study of cigarette tar yield and lung cancer , 2004, Cancer Causes & Control.

[245]  History of residence and lung cancer risk in New Mexico. , 1987, American journal of epidemiology.

[246]  S. Lowe The Nazi War on Cancer , 2000 .

[247]  D. Dockery,et al.  Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. , 1995, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[248]  E. C. Hammond,et al.  MORTALITY EXPERIENCE OF INSULATION WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, 1943‐1976 * , 1979, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.