Athens Institute for Education and Research ATINER ATINER ' s Conference Paper Series PLA 2016-XXXX

A large proportion of energy demand comes from urban areas, mostly from buildings and transport, the use of which has impacts on climate and air quality through the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. The research in this paper investigates the relationship between the selected urban form characteristics and energy consumption in England, in order to understand how one influences the other. The influence of urban form is recognized in many aspects of cities, such as human behavior and transport dynamics. Consequently, it is also expected to have a significant impact on energy consumption and to be a key component in future urban sustainability. Urban energy consumption is calculated at a large geographic scale of analysis combining the consumption of both buildings and commute transport. Urban form indicators are obtained for the same landparcels and correlations between the two calculated. The results demonstrate that a variety of urban form characteristics influence energy consumption. Some measures show little correlation with energy consumption, whereas other density measures show a significant scaling relationship. Therefore, density indicators such as population density are suggested as a means to explain urban energy consumption. Additionally, the results reveal that the relationship between energy consumption and urban characteristics follows a sublinear scaling relationship and hence show an economy of scale. This analysis suggests that better energy efficiency is achieved by areas with higher population density, which provides new insights to urban policymakers and planners seeking to design strategies to cut carbon emissions and energy consumption.

[1]  R. Ewing,et al.  The impact of urban form on U.S. residential energy use , 2008 .

[2]  Shem Heiple,et al.  Using building energy simulation and geospatial modeling techniques to determine high resolution building sector energy consumption profiles , 2008 .

[3]  M. Dijst,et al.  Urban Form and Travel Behaviour: Micro-level Household Attributes and Residential Context , 2002 .

[4]  D. Lu,et al.  Assessing the effects of land use and land cover patterns on thermal conditions using landscape metrics in city of Indianapolis, United States , 2007, Urban Ecosystems.

[5]  Y. Geng,et al.  Energy consumption and GHG emissions from China's freight transport sector: Scenarios through 2050 , 2015 .

[6]  Pierre Franc,et al.  Impact analysis on shipping lines and European ports of a cap- and-trade system on CO2 emissions in maritime transport , 2014 .

[7]  John E. Anderson,et al.  Energy analysis of the built environment—A review and outlook , 2015 .

[8]  Ian Walker,et al.  Integrating the energy costs of urban transport and buildings , 2017 .

[9]  Karen C. Seto,et al.  Urbanization and the carbon cycle: Contributions from social science , 2014 .

[10]  A. Frenkel,et al.  Measuring Urban Sprawl: How Can We Deal with It? , 2008 .

[11]  M. Alberti.  The Effects of Urban Patterns on Ecosystem Function , 2005 .

[12]  Shinji Kaneko,et al.  Does urbanization lead to less energy use and lower CO2 emissions? A cross-country analysis , 2010 .

[13]  M. Barthelemy,et al.  How congestion shapes cities: from mobility patterns to scaling , 2014, Scientific Reports.

[14]  Xixi Lu,et al.  A global comparative analysis of urban form: Applying spatial metrics and remote sensing , 2007 .

[15]  Qinghua Zhu,et al.  Analysis of greenhouse gas emissions of freight transport sector in China , 2014 .

[16]  Christoph F. Reinhart,et al.  Urban building energy modeling – A review of a nascent field , 2015 .

[17]  Dominik E. Reusser,et al.  Cities as nuclei of sustainability? , 2013, 1304.4406.

[18]  Drury B. Crawley,et al.  EnergyPlus: Energy simulation program , 2000 .

[19]  M. Abou Zeid,et al.  A statistical model of vehicle emissions and fuel consumption , 2002, Proceedings. The IEEE 5th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems.

[20]  Kara M. Kockelman,et al.  Urban Form and Life-Cycle Energy Consumption: Case Studies at the City Scale , 2015 .

[21]  M. Kleiber.  Body size and metabolic rate. , 1947, Physiological reviews.

[22]  R. Madlener,et al.  Impacts of urbanization on urban structures and energy demand: What can we learn for urban energy planning and urbanization management? , 2011 .

[23]  A. Raveh,et al.  URBAN DENSITY AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION: A NEW LOOK AT OLD STATISTICS , 2004 .

[24]  F. Creutzig,et al.  Global typology of urban energy use and potentials for an urbanization mitigation wedge , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[25]  M. Batty,et al.  Constructing cities, deconstructing scaling laws , 2013, Journal of The Royal Society Interface.

[26]  Chin W. Yang,et al.  Causal Relationship between Energy Consumption and GDP Growth Revisited: A Dynamic Panel Data Approach , 2008 .

[27]  D. Brownstone,et al.  The Impact of Residential Density on Vehicle Usage and Energy Consumption , 2005 .

[28]  Juval Portugali,et al.  Complexity theories of cities have come of age : an overview with implications to urban planning and design , 2012 .

[29]  N. Grimm,et al.  Global Change and the Ecology of Cities , 2008, Science.

[30]  Yan Song,et al.  Quantitative analysis of urban form: a multidisciplinary review , 2008 .

[31]  L. Bettencourt,et al.  Supplementary Materials for The Origins of Scaling in Cities , 2013 .

[32]  K. Seto,et al.  Does Size Matter? Scaling of CO2 Emissions and U.S. Urban Areas , 2013, PloS one.

[33]  Lee Chapman,et al.  Transport and climate change: a review , 2007 .

[34]  David Banister,et al.  Sustainable Cities: Transport, Energy, and Urban Form , 1997 .

[35]  Michael A. Gerber,et al.  EnergyPlus Energy Simulation Software , 2014 .

[36]  Richard W. Eglese,et al.  Fuel emissions optimization in vehicle routing problems with time-varying speeds , 2016, Eur. J. Oper. Res..

[37]  C. Brand,et al.  Accelerating the transformation to a low carbon passenger transport system: The role of car purchase taxes, feebates, road taxes and scrappage incentives in the UK , 2013 .

[38]  Susan L Handy,et al.  Correlation or causality between the built environment and travel behavior? Evidence from Northern California , 2005 .

[39]  José I. Barredo,et al.  Are European Cities Becoming Dispersed? A Comparative Analysis of 15 European Urban Areas , 2006 .

[40]  Daniel Sperling,et al.  Energy Efficiency in Passenger Transportation , 2014 .

[41]  C. Woodcock,et al.  Compact, Dispersed, Fragmented, Extensive? A Comparison of Urban Growth in Twenty-five Global Cities using Remotely Sensed Data, Pattern Metrics and Census Information , 2008 .

[42]  Jiaqiu Wang,et al.  Resilience of Self-Organised and Top-Down Planned Cities—A Case Study on London and Beijing Street Networks , 2015, PloS one.

[43]  S. Dhakal.  Urban energy use and carbon emissions from cities in China and policy implications , 2009 .

[44]  Vijay Modi,et al.  Spatial distribution of urban building energy consumption by end use , 2012 .

[45]  C. Brand,et al.  The UK transport carbon model: An integrated life cycle approach to explore low carbon futures , 2012 .

[46]  Jiyong Eom,et al.  China's transportation energy consumption and CO2 emissions from a global perspective , 2015 .

[47]  Jeffrey Kenworthy,et al.  Gasoline Consumption and Cities: A Comparison of U.S. Cities with a Global Survey , 1989 .

[48]  Jorge Gil,et al.  Urban Modality: Modelling and evaluating the sustainable mobility of urban areas in the city-region , 2016 .

[49]  Qing Shen,et al.  An empirical analysis of the influence of urban form on household travel and energy consumption , 2011 .

[50]  Shan Jiang,et al.  Discovering urban spatial-temporal structure from human activity patterns , 2012, UrbComp '12.

[51]  Kristel de Myttenaere,et al.  Towards a comprehensive life cycle energy analysis framework for residential buildings , 2012 .

[52]  B. Bhatta.  Analysis of Urban Growth and Sprawl from Remote Sensing Data , 2010 .

[53]  Lixiao Zhang,et al.  System dynamics modeling for urban energy consumption and CO2 emissions: A case study of Beijing, China , 2013 .

[54]  Richard Gilbert,et al.  Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight Without Oil , 2007 .

[55]  K. Gurney.  Urbanization and the Carbon Cycle: Synthesis of Ongoing Research , 2015 .

[56]  Marlon G. Boarnet,et al.  The influence of land use on travel behavior: specification and estimation strategies , 2001 .

[57]  Geoffrey K.F. Tso,et al.  A multilevel regression approach to understand effects of environment indicators and household features on residential energy consumption , 2014 .

[58]  Bill Hillier,et al.  The city as one thing , 2007 .

[59]  Sung-Mo Rhee,et al.  The relationship between the characteristics of transportation energy consumption and urban form , 2006 .

[60]  Ian Walker.  Research Methods and Statistics , 2010 .

[61]  Bryan C. Pijanowski,et al.  An urban growth boundary model using neural networks, GIS and radial parameterization: An application to Tehran, Iran , 2011 .

[62]  Y. Yamagata,et al.  Relationship between urban form and CO2 emissions: Evidence from fifty Japanese cities , 2012 .

[63]  M. Rosas-Casals,et al.  Transport energy demand in Andorra. Assessing private car futures through sensitivity and scenario analysis , 2016 .

[64]  K. Williams.  Urban form and infrastructure: A morphological review , 2014 .

[65]  Yu-hsin Tsai.  Quantifying Urban Form: Compactness versus 'Sprawl' , 2005 .

[66]  David J. C. MacKay.  Sustainable Energy - Without the Hot Air , 2008 .

[67]  Marc Barthelemy,et al.  Self-organization versus top-down planning in the evolution of a city , 2013, Scientific Reports.

[68]  Ian Walker,et al.  Urban Transport: Analysis of Commute Energy Use , 2015 .

[69]  G. Knaap,et al.  Measuring Urban Form: Is Portland Winning the War on Sprawl? , 2004 .

[70]  Michael Wegener,et al.  COMPACT CITY AND URBAN SPRAWL , 2004 .

[71]  M. Herold,et al.  The Use of Remote Sensing and Landscape Metrics to Describe Structures and Changes in Urban Land Uses , 2002 .

[72]  Liu Chao,et al.  An empirical analysis of the influence of urban form on household travel and energy consumption , 2011, Comput. Environ. Urban Syst..

[73]  R. Samet,et al.  Complexity, the science of cities and long-range futures , 2013 .

[74]  E. Holden,et al.  Three Challenges for the Compact City as a Sustainable Urban Form: Household Consumption of Energy and Transport in Eight Residential Areas in the Greater Oslo Region , 2005 .

[75]  Michael Batty,et al.  Fractal Cities: A Geometry of Form and Function , 1996 .

[76]  Petter Næss,et al.  Urban form and travel behavior: experience from a Nordic context , 2012 .

[77]  Lee Schipper,et al.  The impact of more efficient but larger new passenger cars on energy consumption in EU-15 countries , 2012 .

[78]  Arno Schlueter,et al.  Integrated model for characterization of spatiotemporal building energy consumption patterns in neighborhoods and city districts , 2015 .

[79]  Harry W. Richardson,et al.  GASOLINE CONSUMPTION AND CITIES: A REPLY , 1989 .

[80]  Michael Batty,et al.  Diverse cities or the systematic paradox of Urban Scaling Laws , 2017, Comput. Environ. Urban Syst..

[81]  David Banister,et al.  Transport, Climate Change and the City , 2014 .

[82]  Nina Schwarz.  Urban form revisited—Selecting indicators for characterising European cities , 2010 .

[83]  Kay W. Axhausen,et al.  A multiscale classification of the urban morphology , 2016 .