Procedural frames in negotiations: how offering my resources versus requesting yours impacts perception, behavior, and outcomes.

Although abundant negotiation research has examined outcome frames, little is known about the procedural framing of negotiation proposals (i.e., offering my vs. requesting your resources). In a series of 8 experiments, we tested the prediction that negotiators would show a stronger concession aversion and attain better individual outcomes when their own resource, rather than the counterpart's, is the accentuated reference resource in a transaction. First, senders of proposals revealed a stronger concession aversion when they offered their own rather than requested the counterpart's resources-both in buyer-seller (Experiment 1a) and in classic transaction negotiations (Experiment 2a). Expectedly, this effect reversed for recipients: When receiving requests rather than offers, recipients experienced a stronger concession aversion in buyer-seller (Experiment 1b) and transaction negotiations (Experiment 2b). Experiments 3-5 investigated procedural frames in the interactive process of negotiations-with elementary schoolchildren (Experiment 3), in a buyer-seller context (Experiments 4a and 4b), and in a computer-mediated transaction negotiation void of buyer and seller roles (Experiment 5). In summary, 8 experiments showed that negotiators are more concession averse and claim more individual value when negotiation proposals are framed to highlight their own rather than the counterpart's resources.

[1]  Richard P. Larrick,et al.  The Claiming Effect: Why Players Are More Generous in Social Dilemmas Than in Ultimatum Games , 1997 .

[2]  R. Trötschel,et al.  Implementation intentions and the willful pursuit of prosocial goals in negotiations , 2007 .

[3]  Peter J. Carnevale,et al.  Negotiation in Social Conflict , 1993 .

[4]  L. Thompson,et al.  TACTICAL BEHAVIOR AND NEGOTIATION OUTCOMES , 1990 .

[5]  P. Carnevale Positive affect and decision frame in negotiation , 2008 .

[6]  James McCosh The symbolic power. , 1889 .

[7]  Poonam Arora,et al.  Regulatory Fit in Negotiation: Effects of "Prevention-Buyer" and "Promotion-Seller" Fit , 2009 .

[8]  M. Bazerman,et al.  The Effects of Framing and Negotiator Overconfidence on Bargaining Behaviors and Outcomes , 1985 .

[9]  William P. Bottom,et al.  Framing Effects and the Distributive Aspect of Integrative Bargaining , 1993 .

[10]  C. Plott psychology and economics , 1990 .

[11]  A. Galinsky,et al.  First offers as anchors: the role of perspective-taking and negotiator focus. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[12]  Mara Olekalns,et al.  Market forces, negotiator frames and transaction outcomes , 1994 .

[13]  Daniel Druckman,et al.  Determinants of Compromising Behavior in Negotiation , 1994 .

[14]  M. Bazerman,et al.  Integrative bargaining in a competitive market , 2015 .

[15]  Jeffrey T. Polzer,et al.  Intergroup Negotiations , 1996 .

[16]  Peter J. Carnevale,et al.  Framing in Resource Dilemmas: Loss Aversion and the Moderating Effects of Sanctions , 1995 .

[17]  G. Northcraft,et al.  Experts, amateurs, and refrigerators: Comparing expert and amateur negotiators in a novel task , 1986 .

[18]  D. Ariely,et al.  Focusing on the Forgone: How Value Can Appear So Different to Buyers and Sellers , 2000 .

[19]  D. G. Pruitt,et al.  Development of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation. , 1975 .

[20]  Adrian Furnham,et al.  The Psychology of Money , 1998 .

[21]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem , 1990, Journal of Political Economy.

[22]  P. Carnevale,et al.  Effects of gain-loss frames in negotiation: Loss aversion, mismatching, and frame adoption , 1994 .

[23]  D. Annis Dyadic Data Analysis , 2007 .

[24]  A. Tversky,et al.  The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. , 1981, Science.

[25]  Vandra L. Huber,et al.  The framing of negotiations: Contextual versus task frames , 1987 .

[26]  Roderick I. Swaab,et al.  The First-Mover Disadvantage , 2014, Psychological science.

[27]  David M. Messick,et al.  Scarcity or abundance caused by people or the environment as determinants of behavior in the resource dilemma , 1987 .

[28]  Liqing Zhang An Exchange Theory of Money and Self-Esteem in Decision Making , 2009 .

[29]  Kathleen D. Vohs,et al.  PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Research Article The Symbolic Power of Money Reminders of Money Alter Social Distress and Physical Pain , 2022 .

[30]  Max H. Bazerman,et al.  Negotiating rationally: the power and impact of the negotiator's frame , 1992 .

[31]  D. Kahneman Reference points, anchors, norms, and mixed feelings. , 1992 .

[32]  Kirstin C. Appelt,et al.  My way: How strategic preferences vary by negotiator role and regulatory focus☆ , 2010 .

[33]  Mara Olekalns Situational cues as moderators of the frame–outcome relationship , 1997 .

[34]  Peter S. Fader,et al.  Power and Goal Setting in Channel Negotiations , 1986 .

[35]  Kristopher J Preacher,et al.  Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models , 2008, Behavior research methods.

[36]  S. Lea,et al.  Money as tool, money as drug: The biological psychology of a strong incentive , 2006, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[37]  Richard P. Larrick,et al.  Framing the Game: Examining Frame Choice in Bargaining. , 2000, Organizational behavior and human decision processes.

[38]  C. D. De Dreu,et al.  Influence of social motives on integrative negotiation: a meta-analytic review and test of two theories. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[39]  Roman Trötschel,et al.  Promoting prevention success at the bargaining table: Regulatory focus in distributive negotiations , 2013 .

[40]  Mara Olekalns Context, issues and frame as determinants of negotiated outcomes , 1994 .

[41]  Roderick M. Kramer,et al.  Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size, and decision framing. , 1986 .

[42]  Margaret A. Neale,et al.  Effects of cognitive heuristics and goals on negotiator performance and subsequent goal setting , 1986 .

[43]  David D. Loschelder,et al.  Perspective taking as a means to overcome motivational barriers in negotiations: when putting oneself into the opponent's shoes helps to walk toward agreements. , 2011, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[44]  David D. Loschelder,et al.  Overcoming the competitiveness of an intergroup context: Third-party intervention in intergroup negotiations , 2010 .

[45]  B. Efron Better Bootstrap Confidence Intervals , 1987 .

[46]  David D. Loschelder,et al.  “€14,875?!”: Precision Boosts the Anchoring Potency of First Offers , 2014 .

[47]  Joo-Young Jung,et al.  The influence of social , 2014 .

[48]  Harold H. Kelley,et al.  Effects of extremity of offers and concession rate on the outcomes of bargaining. , 1972 .