Spallation models and their relevance to steam-grown oxides

Abstract An overview is given of existing models of oxide spallation with particular emphasis on their relevance to the mechanical integrity of steam-grown oxide layers on alloys used in power generating systems. Although the bulk of the experimental and modelling work over the last decade has been undertaken on alumina-forming high-temperature alloys, the understanding obtained can be used advantageously to identify likely key factors affecting the mechanical response of alloys at lower temperatures. Various aspects are addressed, such as the mechanisms of cracking and spallation, but a central issue is whether creep rates in the multi-layered scale formed on ferritic alloys can ever be high enough to relax possible growth stresses and to permit the Critical Strain Energy Criterion to be used as a method for predicting oxide spallation.

[1]  H. Evans.  Mechanisms of creep fracture , 1984 .

[2]  A. Crouch.  High‐Temperature Deformation of Polycrystalline Fe2O3 , 1972 .

[3]  D. Hall,et al.  The tensile failure of nickel oxide scales at ambient and at growth temperature , 1993 .

[4]  J. Nicholls,et al.  Application of fracture mechanics to failure of surface oxide scales , 1988 .

[5]  A. Donaldson,et al.  Oxidation-induced creep in Zircaloy-2. I. Basic observations , 1981 .

[6]  M. Manning.  Geometrical effects on oxide scale integrity , 1981 .

[7]  H. Evans.  Spallation of oxide from stainless steel AGR nuclear fuel cladding: mechanisms and consequences , 1988 .

[8]  J. Grosskreutz.  Mechanical Properties of Metal Oxide Films , 1969 .

[9]  J. Stringer,et al.  Room temperature strains in Cr2O3 scales formed at elevated temperatures on Ni-25wt%Cr and y- and Al-doped Ni-25wt%Cr , 1991 .

[10]  J. Lebrun,et al.  The determination of stresses during oxidation of Ni: in situ measurements by XRD at high temperature , 1993 .

[11]  D. A. Shores,et al.  Evaluation of stresses in NiNiO and CrCr2O3 during high temperature oxidation by in situ X-ray diffraction , 1994 .

[12]  F. N. Rhines,et al.  The role of oxide microstructure and growth stresses in the high-temperature scaling of nickel , 1970 .

[13]  M. Schütze.  Assessment of the limits to the protective effect of oxide scales in high temperature technology, set by deformation of the substrate material , 1991 .

[14]  C. Ponton,et al.  The Failure of Protective Oxides on Plasma-Sprayed NiCrAlY Overlay Coatings , 2000 .

[15]  M. Schütze.  Stresses and decohesion of oxide scales , 1988 .

[16]  Z. Suo.  Wrinkling of the oxide scale on an aluminum-containing alloy at high temperatures , 1995 .

[17]  M. Li,et al.  Oxidation growth stresses in an alumina-forming ferritic steel measured by creep deflection , 1997 .

[18]  J. Robertson,et al.  Limits to adherence of oxide scales , 1990 .

[19]  H. Evans,et al.  Conditions for the initiation of oxide-scale cracking and spallation , 1984 .

[20]  M. Bennett,et al.  Oxidation induced lifetime limits of thin walled, iron based, alumina forming, oxide dispersion strengthened alloy components , 1994 .

[21]  Wilfried Becker,et al.  Comparison of models for transverse ply cracks in composite laminates , 2000 .

[22]  J. Robertson,et al.  Creep and oxygen diffusion in magnetite , 1990 .

[23]  G. Cailletaud,et al.  Comparison of Oxidation-Growth Stresses in NiO Film Measured by Deflection and Calculated Using Creep Analysis or Finite-Element Modeling , 2002 .

[24]  Willem J. Quadakkers,et al.  Lifetime modelling of high temperature corrosion processes : proceedings of an EFC Workshop 2001 , 2001 .

[25]  D. Owen,et al.  A numerical analysis of oxide spallation , 1993, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[26]  P. Hancock,et al.  The Mechanical Properties and Breakdown of Surface Oxide Films at Elevated Temperatures , 1974 .

[27]  M. Schütze.  Deformation and cracking behavior of protective oxide scales on heat-resistant steels under tensile strain , 1985 .

[28]  J. Nicholls,et al.  The influence of imposed strain rate on fracture of surface oxides , 1993 .

[29]  J. Nicholls,et al.  The Influence of Diffusion-Related Mechanisms in Limiting Oxide-Scale Failure , 1995 .

[30]  A. Evans,et al.  On the mechanical behavior of brittle coatings and layers , 1983 .

[31]  C. Barrett,et al.  COSP: A computer model of cyclic oxidation , 1991 .

[32]  J. Noden,et al.  Growth of Austenitic Stainless Steels Oxidised in Carbon and Oxygen Bearing Gases , 1968 .

[33]  S. Britton.  An Introduction to Metallic Corrosion , 1981 .

[34]  Soon-Bok Lee,et al.  Analysis on failures of protective-oxide layers and cyclic oxidation , 1993 .

[35]  Hugh Evans,et al.  Creep relaxation and the spallation of oxide layers , 1997 .

[36]  M. Schütze.  The healing behavior of protective oxide scales on heat-resistant steels after cracking under tensile strain , 1986 .

[37]  F. Pettit,et al.  X-ray determination of stresses in alumina scales on high temperature alloys , 2000 .

[38]  H. Evans.  Stress effects in high temperature oxidation of metals , 1995 .

[39]  C. Barrett,et al.  Comparison of isothermal and cyclic oxidation behavior of twenty-five commercial sheet alloys at 1150°C , 1975 .

[40]  S. Bull.  Modeling of Residual Stress in Oxide Scales , 1998 .

[41]  A. T. Fry,et al.  Oxidation of alloys in steam environments - a review. , 2002 .

[42]  W. R. Dean.  On the Theory of Elastic Stability , 1925 .