Peripheral refractive errors in myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic young subjects.

To gain more insight into the relationship between foveal and peripheral refractive errors in humans, spheres, cylinders, and their axes were binocularly measured across the visual field in myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic groups of young subjects. Both automated infrared photorefraction (the "PowerRefractor"; www. plusoptix.de) and a double-pass technique were used because the PowerRefractor provided extensive data from the central 44 deg of the visual field in a very convenient and fast way. Two-dimensional maps for the average cross cylinders and spherical equivalents, as well as for the axes of the power meridians of the cylinders, were created. A small amount of lower-field myopia was detected with a significant vertical gradient in spherical equivalents. In the central visual field there was little difference among the three refractive groups. The established double-pass technique provided complementary data also from the far periphery. At 45 deg eccentricity the double-pass technique revealed relatively more hyperopic spherical equivalents in myopic subjects than in emmetropic subjects [+/-2.73 +/- 2.85 D relative to the fovea, p < 0.01 (+/- standard deviation)] and more myopic spherical equivalents in hyperopic subjects (-3.84 +/- 2.86 D relative to the fovea, p < 0.01). Owing to the pronounced peripheral astigmatism, spherical equivalents (refractions with respect to the plane of the circle of least confusion) became myopic relative to the fovea in all three groups. The finding of general peripheral myopia was unexpected. Its possible roles in foveal refractive development are discussed.

[1]  R. Navarro,et al.  Odd aberrations and double-pass measurements of retinal image quality. , 1995, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision.

[2]  B P Hayes,et al.  Refractive sectors in the visual field of the pigeon eye. , 1985, The Journal of physiology.

[3]  J. Wallman,et al.  Might myopic defocus preven myopia , 2000 .

[4]  J. Wallman,et al.  Local retinal regions control local eye growth and myopia. , 1987, Science.

[5]  Sally A. McFadden.  Partial Occlusion Produces Local Form Deprivation Myopia in the Guinea Pig Eye , 2002 .

[6]  J Wattam-Bell,et al.  Measurement of Astigmatism by Automated Infrared Photoretinoscopy , 1997, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[7]  J. Siegwart,et al.  Regulation of the mechanical properties of tree shrew sclera by the visual environment , 1999, Vision Research.

[8]  W. Hodos,et al.  Electrophysiological optometry using Scheiner's principle in the pigeon eye. , 1985, The Journal of physiology.

[9]  N. Mcbrien,et al.  Scleral remodeling during the development of and recovery from axial myopia in the tree shrew. , 2000, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[10]  K. Schmid,et al.  Natural and imposed astigmatism and their relation to emmetropization in the chick. , 1997, Experimental eye research.

[11]  J. Sivak,et al.  An evaluation of the “ramp” retina of the horse eye , 1975, Vision Research.

[12]  R. Clement,et al.  A MODEL FOR RETINAL SHAPE CHANGES IN AMETROPIA , 1987, Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.

[13]  D. Mutti,et al.  Peripheral refraction and ocular shape in children. , 2000, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[14]  David Williams,et al.  Modulation transfer of the human eye as a function of retinal eccentricity , 1993 .

[15]  F. Schaeffel,et al.  Inter‐individual variability in the dynamics of natural accommodation in humans: relation to age and refractive errors. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[16]  M Millodot,et al.  Effect of Ametropia on Peripheral Refraction , 1981, American journal of optometry and physiological optics.

[17]  W. Lotmar,et al.  Peripheral astigmatism in the human eye: experimental data and theoretical model predictions. , 1974, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[18]  M C Dunne,et al.  SCHEMATIC MODELLING OF PERIPHERAL ASTIGMATISM IN REAL EYES , 1987, Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.

[19]  M C Dunne,et al.  Modelling oblique astigmatism in eyes with known peripheral refraction and optical dimensions , 1990, Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.

[20]  I Iglesias,et al.  Double-pass measurements of the retinal-image quality with unequal entrance and exit pupil sizes and the reversibility of the eye's optical system. , 1995, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision.

[21]  W F Harris.  Algebra of Sphero‐Cylinders and Refractive Errors, and Their Means, Variance, and Standard Deviation , 1988, American journal of optometry and physiological optics.

[22]  M C Dunne,et al.  Peripheral astigmatic asymmetry and angle alpha , 1993, Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians.

[23]  W. Lotmar.  Theoretical Eye Model with Aspherics , 1971 .

[24]  W. Charman,et al.  Off-axis image quality in the human eye , 1981, Vision Research.

[25]  A Bradley,et al.  Effects of refractive error on detection acuity and resolution acuity in peripheral vision. , 1997, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[26]  G. L. Walls,et al.  The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation , 1943 .

[27]  H C Howland,et al.  Laboratory, Clinical, and Kindergarten Test of a New Eccentric Infrared Photorefractor (PowerRefractor) , 2000, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[28]  A. Derrington,et al.  Refraction, aliasing, and the absence of motion reversals in peripheral vision , 1995, Vision Research.

[29]  F Rempt,et al.  Peripheral retinoscopy and the skiagram. , 1971, Ophthalmologica. Journal international d'ophtalmologie. International journal of ophthalmology. Zeitschrift fur Augenheilkunde.

[30]  P Artal,et al.  Determination of the point-spread function of human eyes using a hybrid optical-digital method. , 1987, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics and image science.

[31]  Peripheral sphere and astigmatism measured by Infrared photoretinoscopy and by double pass point spread , 1999 .

[32]  P Artal,et al.  Average optical performance of the human eye as a function of age in a normal population. , 1999, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[33]  C. E. Ferree,et al.  Refractive Asymmetry in the Temporal and Nasal Halves of the Visual Fiel , 1932 .

[34]  J. T. Erichsen,et al.  Lower-field myopia in birds: An adaptation that keeps the ground in focus , 1990, Vision Research.

[35]  L. Post.  The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation , 1943 .

[36]  T. Collett,et al.  Lower-field myopia and astigmatism in amphibians and chickens. , 1994, Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision.

[37]  Pablo Artal,et al.  Off-axis monochromatic aberrations estimated from double pass measurements in the human eye , 1999, Vision Research.

[38]  Susana Marcos,et al.  Image Quality of the Human Eye , 2003, International ophthalmology clinics.

[39]  David R. Williams,et al.  Off-axis optical quality and retinal sampling in the human eye , 1996, Vision Research.

[40]  F. Schaeffel,et al.  Local Changes in Eye Growth induced by Imposed Local Refractive Error despite Active Accommodation , 1997, Vision Research.

[41]  F. Schaeffel.  Kappa and Hirschberg Ratio Measured with an Automated Video Gaze Tracker , 2002, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[42]  C. E. Ferree,et al.  REFRACTION FOR THE PERIPHERAL FIELD OF VISION , 1931 .